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History, The Complete and Concise History of the Sumerians

The Complete and Concise History of the Sumerians

About 200 years ago, European archaeologists were busy digging through the sands of what's

today the Middle East.

Mostly confined to Egypt and the southern half of Mesopotamia, the land that today makes

up the country we know as Iraq, they were searching for the remains of several places

that had been featured in the Bible, the works of Greek authors such as Herodotus and Strabo,

and the journals of medieval and renaissance travelers such as Benjamin of Tudela and

Pietro della Valle.

Babylon, Nineveh, Ur, names of places that many had heard or read about, but that few,

if any in the west at the time, knew the precise locations of.

By the early 1800s, archaeologists had made several important discoveries that culminated

with Englishman Claudius James Rich mapping the ruins of Babylon and Nineveh, where, among

other things, he collected numerous bricks, tablets, clay cylinders, and boundary stones

that were inscribed with mysterious markings.

However, they were not only present just in Babylon and Nineveh, but were found in many

other places, including in Iran at sites such as Persepolis and Behistun.

At these latter two sites, they were also accompanied by two other sets of similar but

different markings, which scholars were now convinced were not decorations, but the scripts

of unknown languages.

After the decipherment of one of the three groups, which ended up being Old Persian,

it became possible to decrypt the other two.

The script that was also present at the sites of Babylon and Nineveh was revealed to be

Akkadian, though in those days, archaeologists called it Babylonian.

The third of the trilingual inscriptions ended up being Elamite.

Though no one today speaks it, Akkadian, like modern Hebrew and Arabic, is a Semitic language

that is well understood by linguists and Near Eastern archaeologists alike.

However, in the mid-19th century, a growing number of scholars began to suspect that this

written form of Akkadian, which we call cuneiform, was not developed by the Semitic language

speakers of Babylon and Assyria, but by another people.

Many of the Babylonian inscriptions and texts that were starting to be translated at the

time contained the phrase, Sumer and Akkad, as in, Land of Sumer and Akkad, or King of

Sumer and Akkad.

It's obvious that Sumer was a place, but where was it?

And who were the inhabitants of Sumer, who they called Sumerians?

Could this unconventional script have come from these, up until now, completely unknown

people?

Scholars were stuck in a conundrum.

They didn't know it at the time, but those early archaeologists had stumbled upon what

some call the mother civilization of both the Babylonians and the Assyrians.

We know these people today as the Sumerians.

By around 7000 to 6000 BC, people began to move south along the Tigris and Euphrates

rivers to what were by then the fertile flood plains of Mesopotamia, specifically in the

land that today makes up most of Iraq and parts of northern Syria.

Mesopotamia, which means, Land between rivers, is the Greek name for the area, and it's

here that early farms began to really take root on a much larger scale.

The land of Mesopotamia is quite flat, and really consists of thousands of years of silt

spread across the plain by the constant flooding of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers.

This soil was, and is still today, extremely rich and fertile, making it ideal for growing

crops such as wheat and barley.

Small scale farming had already been achieved several thousand years prior in parts of the

Near East that we call the Fertile Crescent, which is a region of productive land that

stretches north up the coast of the Eastern Mediterranean, east through the mountains of

Turkey and northern Iraq, before venturing south along the flood plains of the Tigris

and Euphrates rivers towards the Persian Gulf.

One of these early farming communities that was widespread in central Mesopotamia was

the Samara culture, named after the site of Samara where it was first discovered.

Estimates vary, but most archaeologists date this culture to between 6500 to 5500 BC.

Samaran pottery has its own distinctive style that's often decorated with geometric images

representing natural phenomena.

The early farmers of this culture seemed to have dug irrigation canals to bring nearby

rivers and streams under their control.

Another culture that ended up being more widespread than the Samara is known as the Halaf culture.

It was most active between the years 6500 to 5500 BC, though some date it to the later,

more narrower span of time between 5700 to 5000 BC.

Similar to the Samara, they also created very distinctive and beautiful ceramic objects

and pottery that was widely traded throughout the Fertile Crescent.

In return, the Halaf people generally received goods such as obsidian, bitumen, and seashells.

They also created some of the earliest examples of stamp seals.

Not too long after 6000 BC, in southern Mesopotamia, changes began to take place that would ultimately

set the stage for civilization as we know it.

It more or less started with the people who belonged to what archaeologists call the Ubaid

culture.

We'll refer to the people of this culture as Ubaidians.

They are of special interest to scholars because their civilization occupied the region

immediately before the rise of the Sumerians and the creation of their first cities.

The culture is named after Tel al-Ubaid, a site not too far from what would become the

great Sumerian city of Ur, which also began as an Ubaidian settlement.

Most scholars date the Ubaid culture to between 5500 to 4000 BC.

The exact origins of the Ubaidians are unknown, but it's believed that they were likely migrants

from other parts of the Fertile Crescent looking for new pastures for their flocks and virgin

soil that could be cultivated for their crops.

Most Ubaidian sites were small villages, though by the late 5th, early 4th millennium BC,

some of these settlements are believed to have grown into towns of nearly 5000 residents

where they grew wheat, barley, and lentils, in addition to raising livestock, including

cattle, goats, and sheep.

The typical Ubaidian village generally consisted of several one-story single-family houses

with a few large structures and facilities designed as storage bins for grain and other

foodstuffs.

Most Ubaid sites had a central earthen mound with a small building at its summit, which

is believed to have been an early temple and the precursor to the ziggurat that would

later on dominate the skylines of many Mesopotamian cities.

Like the Halaf, the Ubaid also traded their unique, hand-painted pottery, as well as other

crafts such as figurines.

Ubaid pottery is something that must have been prized all over the region because it's

been found at multiple sites throughout the Middle East, including Turkey, Iran, Syria,

and across the southeastern regions of the Arabian Peninsula.

Much of our understanding of Ubaid culture comes from the ruins of a city that later

on would be famous in Sumerian mythology as the home of the god Enki.

That city was Eridu.

Even in antiquity, Eridu was believed to have been a very ancient, almost mythical place.

For example, in the very beginning of the text known as the Sumerian King List, it's written,

After the kingship descended from heaven, the kingship was in Eridu.

In Eridu, Alulim became king.

He ruled for 28,800 years.

Alalgar ruled for 36,000 years.

They ruled for a total of 6,800 years.

Then Eridu fell, and the kingship was taken to Bad Tabira.

Another later Babylonian poem states,

A reed had not come forth, a tree had not been created, a house had not been made, a

city had not been made.

All the lands were sea.

Then Eridu made.

In spite of both of these texts being more works of mythology than history, the later

peoples of Mesopotamia may have been on to something.

Archaeologists have determined that the site of Eridu may have been inhabited as far back

as 8,000 BC, over 10,000 years ago.

During the Ubaid period, Eridu was a good place to settle down.

It had plenty of land suitable for farming, as well as plenty of fish that could be attained

from the nearby marshes close to the gulf.

In those days, the shores of what's today the Persian Gulf were much further inland

than they are today.

Such a place in those days may have seemed to have been a paradise in what was otherwise

a dry, inhospitable desert.

The local inhabitants may have even thought that it was the home of a god.

That god would be Enki, the god of fresh waters, the sciences, technology, and the arts, who

was also known for his wisdom and had a soft spot for mankind.

He would go on to become one of the most prominent deities in the Sumerian pantheon.

During the Ubaid period, Eridu was still just a small village community with a rather humble

shrine dedicated to Enki.

Excavations at Eridu show that initially, Enki's sanctuary was little more than a small

brick room less than 8 square meters, with an altar at one end and a stand in the center

for ritual offerings.

In fact, ashes and fish bones have been discovered here, which may have been part of some ritual

offerings to the god.

Some archaeologists believe that every so often, the people of Eridu would take part

in communal feasts that may have involved prayers to the god along with singing and

music.

As the town grew, both the temple and the village expanded.

By 4500 BC, the temple stood on a platform about a meter high.

The expansion and height of the temple would continue to increase during the centuries

until it turned into a step-like pyramid called a ziggurat.

As villages such as Eridu grew into prosperous towns, they attracted travelers and merchants.

Some may have come to visit its temples and sanctuaries, like those dedicated to Enki,

and make their own offerings to the god.

Many of them brought items from their own villages and towns that they donated to such

temples were traded for local goods, such as barley, sheep, or some of Eridu's distinctive

pottery.

An interesting example of international trade in Eridu at the time had to do with copper.

Copper is a very useful metal, but it's not native to southern Mesopotamia.

It had to be imported into the region from places as far away as what's today modern

Oman or Turkey.

It's quite remarkable that even during the Ubaid period, artisans were forging basic

items out of copper in Eridu.

Another item imported into the region, also likely from Turkey, was obsidian.

Up until now, the early settlements that we've been taking a look at have all been quite

small, perhaps a few hundred people on average, the exception being places like Eridu or Tel

Zaidan in Syria.

Both of these places during the Ubaid period may have had as many as 3,000 people at any

given time.

Few would have thought though that perhaps only a millennium later, there would be a

city in ancient Mesopotamia with a population in the tens of thousands.

Less than 200 kilometers northwest of Eridu is the site of Uruk.

It's here that most archaeologists and historians believe that the world's first true city came

into being sometime during the 4th millennium BC.

Though it's impossible to know for sure, archaeological surveys seem to indicate that by 3500 BC,

Uruk may have had at least 25,000 residents.

This may not seem like much to us today.

In most places, especially in the western world, 25,000 residents is perhaps at best

a medium-sized town.

However, in the 4th millennium BC, this would have been a mega-urban center, a place that

those living in towns like Eridu a few generations earlier would not have been able to have even

comprehended.

Historians call this rapid growth of cities in southern Mesopotamia between the years

4000 to 3100 BC the Uruk phenomenon, or the Uruk period.

It's also believed by many archaeologists and historians that sometime during this period,

a people whose real origin is unknown may have entered into the region and mixed with

the local Ubaid population, adopting much of their culture and religion as their own.

What the Ubaidians called them is anyone's guess.

They however would call themselves Sagiga, meaning the black-headed people, and their

homeland Kiendir.

In the past, villages were believed to have been ruled by a small council of elders presided

over by a tribal chieftain.

However, the rise of cities divided society into multiple classes that were ruled by religious,

military, and political elites.

Though the specifics of early government in Uruk aren't known, it's believed that

the person at the top was a sort of priest-king who held both religious and secular authority.

Below him on the social hierarchy were other priests, followed by a few elites or what

we'd classify as noble families, and then specialized laborers including artisans, craftsmen,

fishermen, farmers, gardeners, and herdsmen, just to name a few.

In later centuries, with the advent of writing, a scribal class would also develop.

Below all of these were slaves.

Cities were also the place where certain objects were first produced in mass quantity.

In the past, everyday items such as pottery and textiles were produced at home and generally

for private use.

However, during the Uruk period, specialized artisans and weavers mostly took over this

task.

The objects and clothing that they created may not have been decorated as ornately as

in the past, but that wasn't the point.

They simply had to be well-made and useful.

An example of this are the beveled-rimmed bowls discovered in Uruk.

Fancy, they weren't, but they did the job.

The day-to-day functioning of such an ancient, urban society required some type of authority

to help organize tasks and distribute resources, as well as to keep order.

In Uruk, as in other urban areas during this period, this was made possible by religion.

Each city had a patron deity who technically, at least when they were on earth, lived in

the city, usually at a shrine or temple dedicated to it.

In Eridu, we saw that this deity was the god Enki.

In Uruk, that honor went primarily to the goddess Inanna, although the god An also had

a large temple there.

In theory, the god of each city received goods from the people, which were a form of taxes

usually denominated in wheat, barley, pottery, textiles, or whatever useful items could be given.

This was then redistributed to both the religious and political establishment, and then later

to the general population.

In most cases, this redistribution took place in the city's main temple complex, run by

specially dedicated priests and priestesses, who also conducted religious rituals.

As cities grew larger, the redistribution of goods and services became much more complicated.

There were just so many different types of goods, as well as people with different professions

that needed to be accounted for, and who depended on the temple's redistribution of resources

for their survival.

It was important for the temple bureaucrats to keep track of all of this activity, and

so an early system of writing was developed specifically for this purpose.

Dating to about 3300 BC and written on small, clay tablets, the first forms of writing were

pictographs that recorded the transfer of commodities such as grain, beer, and livestock.

We call this very early script protokuneform.

With over 700 signs, it was quite complete, though it's highly likely that it was based

off an earlier, more primitive system that has yet to be discovered, rather than developed

all at once or by a single individual.

This very early pictographic script was made up of pictures with relatively simple meanings.

For instance, a head of a bull was used to represent cattle, while an ear of barley represented,

you guessed it, barley.

Sometimes though, the meaning was not as clear and had to be read by association with another

symbol.

For example, the sign of a bowl could mean food or bread.

Coupled with the sign of a human head, the two together meant to eat.

Several centuries later, the form of the signs was adapted so that they could be written

faster and with a reed stylus by making wedged impressions into a soft tablet of clay, which

we today call cuneiform.

The clay would then be laid out in the sun where it would dry and harden, making the

wedged impressions permanent.

Cuneiform was ideal for writing the Sumerian language because almost all of the words in

Sumerian are one syllable in length.

This meant that it was possible to write down one symbol for nearly every spoken word.

It's due to the discovery and translation of such cuneiform documents that even after

so many thousands of years, we're still able to peer into the lives of the people of ancient

Mesopotamia.

Though not a form of writing, other objects that were used for communication were cylinder

seals.

As their name implies, these are cylinders, usually made out of stone or clay, but sometimes

also from metal, bone, or ivory, with the design carved into them so that when they're

rolled across a slab of wet clay, a continuous impression is created.

Such seals were used for sealing storeroom locks, goods in jars, or vases, boxes, and

even baskets.

The seals could also be used to confirm the identity of the sender or authorize important

documents coming from someone in a position of power, such as a priest or high-ranking

bureaucrat.

The influence of the Uruk phenomenon wasn't limited to southern Mesopotamia, but spread

throughout much of the ancient Near East between the 4th and 3rd centuries BC.

Archaeologists have uncovered numerous remains of Uruk-style pottery and architecture at

sites in Syria, Iran, and Turkey.

It seems that much of this was not just taken from Uruk, but brought to these regions by

trading colonies that were set up specifically for the purpose of acquiring raw materials

such as copper, obsidian, lead, gold, silver, wood, and stone for buildings.

Eventually, they would even import tin, which was needed for making bronze.

It's unknown when exactly the first kings appeared in Mesopotamia or how this position

really functioned.

Before this, power was in the hands of high-ranking priests whose job, along with religious duties,

included organizing the general population, collecting taxes, and distributing goods and

services.

They had the authority to do such things because they were believed to have directly represented

the gods, or at least to have known their desires.

However, no amount of divine intervention could provide physical security from one's

foreign enemies.

Being a pious priest or priestess didn't mean that such a person was a good warrior or military

strategist.

As cities grew in size, so too did competition for scarce resources and farmland, and eventually,

armed conflicts between city-states occurred.

The need for strong, charismatic individuals who could lead men into battle was of utmost

importance, and it's probably due to this that the first kings arose amongst the growing

population of ancient Mesopotamia.

Though initially it may have been a temporary position needed only during war, eventually

the position of king became hereditary.

By 2900 BC, kings were commonplace in ancient Sumer, and scholars have used this date for

the start of what they call the Early Dynastic Period, which lasted nearly 600 years.

The rulers of city-states generally had one of three titles, En, which roughly translates

to lord, Ensi, which was a governor or local king, and Lugal, which was generally given

to more powerful rulers or great kings.

For example, if a king happened to rule over more than one city, then he could be addressed

as a Lugal, which literally means great man.

A Lugal could have several Ensis ruling other cities on his behalf.

Most cities were surrounded by high walls to protect the temples, administrative buildings,

palaces, houses, and of course, the people who lived and worked within them.

Of all of these structures, the large, step-pyramid-like temple known as the ziggurat was the most

important.

The ziggurat was not just a place of worship, but the actual terrestrial home of the city's

patron god on earth.

Run directly by the priests, it was also the city's chief landowner and richest institution.

Sumerian deities, like later Greek and Roman ones, took human form and often behaved like

people.

They were emotional, jealous, at times petty, and according to Sumerian myths and legends,

often interfered in the affairs of humans.

There were hundreds of such deities in charge of everything from natural phenomenon to household

items.

For example, there was a god of the sky, sun, and moon, but also a god of the plow, bricks,

a goddess of writing, and so on.

An was the god of the sky and the heavens, whose main temple was in Uruk.

However, he wasn't its patron deity.

That honor went to the goddess of love and war, Inanna.

Though An in earlier times may have been considered the most powerful deity of all,

by the early dynastic period, it was clearly Enlil, whose name means Lord Wind, and was

the god of the air.

His holy sanctuary was in the city of Nippur.

Another powerful and extremely popular god was Enki, whose name means Lord Earth, though

he's also the god of sweet or fresh water.

As mentioned earlier, he was the patron god of the city of Eridu, as well as of scientists

and magicians.

Another popular god was Utu, the god of the sun, who was associated with justice and the

patron deity of both Sipar and Larsa.

Then of course there was Nana, the god of the moon and the patron deity of the city

of Ur.

One of the more powerful gods was Ningirsu, the patron deity of the city-state of Lagash,

whose main temple was in Girsu.

He was associated with both farming and war.

By 2500 BC, royal inscriptions and even portraits of individual kings start to appear.

These have greatly helped us to piece together the political history of Sumer and its various

kingdoms.

One of these early inscriptions, along with the depiction of a king, is of Ur-Nanshi,

the ruler of the city-state of Lagash, who's believed to have reigned between the years

2494 to 2465 BC.

One of the most famous depictions of Ur-Nanshi is a limestone relief of the king with what

appears to be a basket of clay bricks on his head.

Currently in the Louvre, the relief depicts the king in one of his most important religious

of consecrating and taking care of his kingdom's many temples, especially those dedicated to

Lagash's patron deity, the god Ningirsu.

Ur-Nanshi's other vital role was as the military leader of Lagash.

From various texts that have been put together, we know that he went to war with the neighboring

city-states of Ur and Umar.

In fact, it may have been during his reign that a centuries-old rivalry was started with

Umar, which we'll get to shortly.

Most early inscriptions, though, were quite simple and often just consisted of a ruler's

name on a votive object.

For example, one stone vessel dated to 2650 BC and found in the ruins of a temple merely

reads,

Embegaresi, King of Kish.

Other inscriptions, though, go into a bit more detail.

A slightly later one from Kish reads,

Misalim, King of Kish, Ningirsu's temple builder.

Place this for Ningirsu.

Lugal-sha-engur, is the ruler of Lagash.

At first glance, the text seems to tell us little except that Musalim, the king of the

city of Kish, built a temple for the god Ningirsu, and that Lugal-sha-engur is the

NC, or ruler, of Lagash.

However, combined with other documents that have been uncovered, we learn that Musalim,

along with being the king of Kish, was at least powerful enough to influence events

in other city-states, such as those of rivals Lagash and Umar.

He may have even ruled over both cities, but this might be a stretch.

Regardless, we're told in a later text by King Enmetena of Lagash the following.

Enlil, king of all the lands, father of all the gods, by his firm command, fixed the border

between the kingdom of Lagash and the kingdom of Umar.

Misalim, king of Kish, at the command of the goddess Ishtaran, measured the field and set

up a boundary stone there.

The actual text literally says,

"...fixed a border between Ningirsu and Shara, who were the patron gods of Lagash and Umar,

respectively."

Thus, in a wider sense, this was as much a conflict between two deities as it was between

two kings and the cities they presided over.

From the same text by Enmetena, we learn even more Sumerian political history.

Ush, the ruler of Umar, acted haughtily.

He ripped out that boundary stone and marched towards the plain of Lagash.

Ningirsu, warrior of Enlil, at his just command, made war with Umar.

At Enlil's command, he threw his great battle net over it and heaped up burial mounds for

it on a plain.

Iyanatum, ruler of Lagash, uncle of Enmetena, ruler of Lagash, fixed the border with Enakale,

ruler of Umar, made the boundary extend from the Nun Canal to the Guedena.

At the boundary channel, he inscribed new boundary stones and restored the boundary

stone of Misalim.

He did not cross into the plain of Umar.

Some more specifics about the size of the fields are given, and we're also told that

Umar is forced to pay reparations in the form of what seems to have been an incredibly large

sum of barley along with future interest payments.

Umar, though, is unable to pay, and according to the text, the following occurs.

Because he could not repay the barley, Urluma, the ruler of Umar, made irrigation water flow

in the boundary channel of Ningirsu and the boundary channel of Nanshi.

He torched and tore out the boundary stones, recruited soldiers from foreign lands, and

crossed the boundary channel of Ningirsu.

Enenatum, ruler of Lagash, battled with him in Ugiga, Ningirsu's beloved field.

Enmetena, beloved son of Enenatum, defeated him.

Urluma fled, but he, Enmetena, killed him in Umar.

The text rambles on about Umar's other crimes and offenses against Lagash and the gods.

One thing, though, is clear.

The city-states of Lagash and Umar had what seems to have been a long conflict over the

fertile land that ran between them.

One very famous work of Sumerian art, what's known as the Stele of the Vultures, also depicts

the conflict between Lagash and Umar in vivid detail.

Commissioned by King Enenatum of Lagash, Enmetena's predecessor, it depicts a fierce battle over

the same area, specifically the fertile fields of Gudiena, where Lagash is victorious over

the forces of Umar.

It's from different texts and monuments such as these that scholars have been able to slowly

put together the political history of Sumer and other parts of the ancient Near East.

As you can see, though, it's not an easy process.

Historians often have to play a game of connect the dots, and even then, many questions are

left unanswered.

For example, one major issue is that we don't know Umar's side of the story of its conflict

with Lagash.

Perhaps its leaders were justified in violating a treaty that may have been biased against

the city-state from the start.

According to all accounts of the conflict, Lagash was victorious several times against

its long-term rival, but as we'll soon see, Umar would strike back.

In addition to Eredu, Uruk, Kish, Lagash, and Umar, there were several other important

cities of ancient Sumer.

Two of the most prominent were Ur and Nippur.

Ur, though, is the more well-known of the two, and perhaps the most famous Sumerian

city of all due to two things.

It's mentioned in the Bible as the birthplace of the prophet Abraham, and also as the place

where a cache of marvelous objects were discovered in the 1920s by a team of archaeologists led

by Sir Charles Leonard Woolley.

Like Uruk and other Sumerian cities, Ur's founding also dates back to the Ubaid period.

Located on what was once the banks of the Euphrates River, Ur was the home of Nana,

the god of the moon.

Some of the most impressive finds came from several extraordinary tombs dating back to

the early dynastic period.

There were approximately 1,050 burial pits, along with 17 extremely elaborate tombs filled

with all types of luxury items.

Despite the fact that they were from approximately 2600 BC, the graves and tombs were relatively

intact and had over the centuries avoided grave robbers.

Many of the objects uncovered included gold armor, weapons, intricate jewelry, chariots,

sculptures, musical instruments, board games, and bowls.

The 17 extremely elaborate tombs are believed to have belonged to members of Ur's ruling

class or the royal family itself.

Along with the king, there were dozens of people who scholars believe may have been

the king's attendants and soldiers while he was alive.

In order to join their master in whatever afterlife they believed was awaiting them,

they either killed themselves or were killed and then buried along with the king in the

tomb.

Whether or not the attendants and soldiers went to their end willingly isn't known,

nor is why such a thing happened, since to date there haven't been any other royal

burials like this one found in Mesopotamia.

When it comes to Sumerian religion, no other place was more important than the holy city

of Nippur.

This was the location of the Ikur, the temple dedicated to the supreme god of the Sumerian

pantheon Enlil.

Due to its status as a holy city, Nippur is said to never have had a king.

Officially, it was politically neutral.

That though didn't stop kings and empire builders of Mesopotamia from making pilgrimages

there and lavishing the Ikur with expensive gifts in an effort to receive some divine

favor.

Like in many, if not most societies, even those that may have started out as being rather

egalitarian, at one time or another, the divide between rich and poor widened, often leading

to unrest and sometimes revolution.

In the 24th century BC, such a series of events occurred in the city-state of Lagash.

As we saw earlier, Lagash had once been a very powerful state under kings like Urnanshi,

Iannatum, and Enmetena.

However, for reasons unknown, the dynasty founded by Urnanshi was disbanded, with a

priest coming to power and eventually nominating one of their own, Enantarsi, to become Lagash's

ruler.

Such a move was unprecedented, at least during the early dynastic period.

With Enantarsi in charge, Lagash's priestly class not only controlled the wealthy temple

apparatus, but also all of the major institutions of the government.

To nobody's surprise, corruption ran rampant.

Enantarsi's successor, Lugalanda, was also of the priestly class, and he took corruption

to a whole new level.

During his reign, more than half of Lagash's land holdings came under his direct control,

not to mention the temples and religious sanctuaries.

Those who disagreed with Lugalanda were dismissed from their positions.

He also levied heavy taxes on nearly everything, including special occasions such as weddings

and even funerals.

Such actions put ordinary people and their families into massive debt.

Things got so bad that according to some documents, impoverished parents had to sell their children

into slavery to help pay off their debts.

After six years of corruption and tyranny, Lugalanda was overthrown by Urukagina, whose

name is also read Uru-inim-gina.

Urukagina saw himself as a reformer and along with being a capable ruler, is best known

for coming up with possibly the first known written code of laws.

I say possibly because we've never actually found a copy of Urukagina's law code.

However, we know about it and what some of the laws were from other documents that reference it.

An excerpt from one of the texts describes, in rather poetic form, how Urukagina prevented

the seizure of assets by tax collectors and monopolists.

But when Ningirsu, the foremost warrior of Enlil, gave kingship of Lagash to Urukagina,

and his hand had grasped him out of the multitude, then Ningirsu enjoined upon him the divine

decrees of former days.

Urukagina held close to the word which his king, Ningirsu, spoke to him.

He banned the man in charge of the boatmen from seizing the boats.

He banned the head of the shepherds from seizing the donkeys and sheep.

He banned the man in charge of the fisheries from seizing the fisheries.

By his own account, it seems that Urukagina was a man of the people.

Unfortunately, his reign and reforms were too little, too late.

Lagash's weakness had not gone unnoticed by its neighbors, most notably by the new

king of its great rival, the city-state of Umma.

In 2341 BC, a man named Lugal-Zagazi became the new Nc of Umma.

Not much is known about his life before he became king, but in his second year as Umma's

he attacked and ultimately conquered the city-state of Lagash.

Perhaps out of vengeance for so many centuries of being bullied by its once great rival,

Lugal-Zagazi's men burned, plundered, and destroyed Lagash, its capital of Girsu, and

all of its holy places, including the great temple of its patron god, Ningirsu.

In one text that was uncovered, a scribe from Lagash lamented the destruction of Ningirsu's

city and cursed Lugal-Zagazi.

He Lugal-Zagazi has ruined the barley field of Ningirsu as much as had been plowed.

Because the man of Umma destroyed the bricks of Lagash, he committed a sin against Ningirsu.

He will cut off his hands which had been lifted against him.

It is not the sin of Uruk-Hagina, the king of Girsu.

May Nidaba, the personal goddess of Lugal-Zagazi, the Nc of Umma, make him bear all his sins.

Lugal-Zagazi though did not stop with Lagash, and would go on to claim to control not just

all of Sumer, but the lands from the lower sea, that is the Persian Gulf, to the upper

sea, meaning the Mediterranean.

In a well-known inscription on Arvaz that he himself had commissioned, Lugal-Zagazi

wants us to know the following.

When Enlil, the king of all the lands, had given the kingship of the land to Lugal-Zagazi,

had directed him the eyes of all the people of the land, had prostrated all the people

before him, then all the people from the lower sea, along the Tigris and Euphrates to the

upper sea, directed their feet toward him.

From east to west, Enlil gave him no rival.

The people of all the lands lie peacefully in the meadow under his rule.

The land rejoiced under his rule.

All the sovereigns of Sumer and the Ncs of all the foreign lands bowed down before him

in Uruk.

If this were true, then Lugal-Zagazi would have created the first real empire in history.

Unfortunately for him, he's not remembered as such, nor do modern scholars believe that

he actually ruled over all of the lands that he claimed to.

Lugal-Zagazi would be defeated by a man who would arguably become the most celebrated

and influential person in all of early antiquity.

He was not a Sumerian, but an Akkadian whose birth name is unknown, but who would call

himself Sharukhin, meaning legitimate king.

We know him as Sargon of Akkad, or Sargon the Great.

The early history of Sargon is obscured in myth and legend.

We don't even know his real name, only that he later called himself Sharikhinu, also read

Sharukhin, which in the Akkadian language means true or legitimate king.

One story of his early years is that his mother, who was a priestess of the goddess Ishtar,

the Akkadian name for Inanna, cast him away in a basket down the Euphrates River, where

he was eventually picked up by a gardener who raised him.

The legend continues, with Sargon eventually becoming the cupbearer of Ur-Zubaba, the king

of the city-state of Kish.

It was during this time that Lugal-Zagazi of Umma was gobbling up the city-states of

Sumer into one great Mesopotamian power, with Uruk as its new capital.

However, his plans for near-eastern domination came to an end when Sargon and his band of

followers marched south from Kish to Uruk and captured Lugal-Zagazi.

The document known as the Sumerian King List tells us the following.

In Uruk, Lugal-Zagazi became king and reigned for 25 years.

One king reigned for 25 years.

Then Uruk was defeated and the kingship taken to Agade.

In Agade, Sargon, whose father was a gardener, reigned for 56 years.

Sargon's own words of his Sumerian campaign are a bit more detailed.

In an old Babylonian copy of a document attributed to him, he speaks of himself in the following

way.

Sargon, the king of Akkad, the bailiff of Ishtar, the king of the universe, the anointed

one of An, the king of the land, the governor of Enlil.

He vanquished Uruk in battle and smote fifty governors and the city by the mace of the

god Elaba.

And he destroyed its fortress and captured Lugal-Zagazi, the king of Uruk, in battle.

He led him to the gate of Enlil in a neck stock.

Sargon of Akkad vanquished Ur in battle and smote the city and destroyed its fortress.

He smote its territory Enlagash as far as the sea.

He vanquished Umma in battle and destroyed its fortress.

It's with Sargon's conquest of southern Mesopotamia around 2334 BC that the early dynastic period

of Sumer comes to an end.

Sargon though didn't stop with Sumer.

Unlike Lugal-Zagazi, who may have only boasted about conquering an empire from the Persian

Gulf to the Mediterranean Sea, most scholars believe that Sargon actually did that and

more.

One could go on about the conquests and exploits of Sargon, his two sons, and his powerful

grandson Naram-Sin, but these are stories for another time.

What's more important for our purpose here is the effects of the Akkadian conquest on

Sumer and its inhabitants.

The people that we know as the Akkadians came from the land just north of Sumer known as

Akkad, what would now make up a good part of central and northern Iraq.

For centuries they had lived side by side with the Sumerians and may have even constituted

sizable populations within Sumer's core cities.

At the time though, they themselves didn't have a written language, so our early knowledge

of them is quite limited.

The Akkadians spoke an eastern Semitic language that we also call Akkadian.

Unlike Sumerian, which is a language isolate, Akkadian is similar to other well understood

Semitic languages including Canaanite, Aramaic, and even modern Hebrew and Arabic.

When Sargon conquered all of Sumer, he made the Akkadian language the official one and

adopted the Sumerian script for its written form.

This though doesn't mean that Sumerian was no longer spoken or even written, but that

it was slowly being replaced in daily life as all official documents and proclamations

were now in Akkadian.

Sargon seems to have taken a great deal of pride in the fact that he was not of noble

birth, something that he stressed in early autobiographies of himself.

Perhaps this made him more relatable to the average person.

After all, how else could an Akkadian outsider muster enough power and influence to topple

the Sumerian establishment and unify them all under his banner?

He broke the power of the priesthood, the local ensies, and the Sumerian nobility and

replaced them with Akkadian governors who were loyal to him.

Sargon and his successors also reorganized and redistributed temple lands and mostly

gave them to their hardcore supporters and loyalists.

This really crushed the power of the priesthood because up until then, such property had been

their main source of revenue.

He also put his daughter, Enhedouana, in charge of the wealthy temple complex in the city

of Ur.

With its millennia-old cities, temple establishments, and other institutions, Sumer had been the

center of civilization in Mesopotamia, the Near Eastern region, and possibly even the

world up until that time, although the civilizations of China, Egypt, and the Indus Valley were

also on the rise.

Sargon though shifted this center when he established his new capital of Akkad on the

Euphrates River, better known as Agade.

It was here that he built palaces and temples dedicated to his patron deities, specifically

the goddess Ishtar and the warrior god of Kish, Zababa.

Not only did Agade become the political center of the Akkadian Empire, but its main economic

hub as well.

Boats carrying goods from Dilmun and Magan, today modern Bahrain and Oman, respectively,

docked at Agade's ports, and caravans from Anatolia, Elam, Arabia, and the Levant all

came to Agade.

Sargon and his successors also reformed the tax system, with most of the revenue coming

directly to Agade before being distributed to other parts of the empire.

Such actions were all at the expense of Sumerian cities such as Uruk, Lagash, and Ur, which

before Sargon's conquest of Sumer had been amongst the most prosperous cities of ancient

Mesopotamia.

As far as we know, Sargon kept a pretty tight grip on power during his reign between 2334-2279

BC.

When he died, several rebellions broke out and his sons who succeeded him, first Rimush

and then Manishtushu, had a difficult time keeping the empire together.

The cities of Sumer were in constant rebellion and only subdued after much violence and brutality.

Though Sargon's grandson, Naramsin, was able to stabilize and then expand the Akkadian

empire into new territories, by the end of the reign of his successor, Shar-Khali-Shari

in 2193 BC, the Akkadian state may have held little territory outside of Agade.

The Sumerian king list seems to describe a chaotic time during which there were several

kings with short reigns whose true lineages were unknown.

Shar-Khali-Shari, son of Naramsin, ruled for 25 years.

Then who was king?

Who was not king?

Irgigi was king.

Nanum was king.

Imi was king.

Ilulu was king.

Those four kings ruled for 3 years.

Dudu reigned for 21 years.

Shudur-al, the son of Dudu, reigned for 15 years.

Though the Akkadian empire was no more, the final nail in the coffin came several years

later when a people from the Zagros mountains, known as the Gutians, swept in, overthrew

Shudur-al and destroyed Agade.

Most scholars believe that it was a bit more complicated than that.

Recent findings seem to indicate that severe famine and drought may have been the real

culprit, causing instability in both Sumer and Akkad as well as the collapse of the regional

economy.

This would have no doubt triggered massive unrest amongst the general population and

ultimately brought the Akkadian state to a point where it could no longer hold on to

its many territories.

The central authority in Agade broke down, and one by one, like dominoes, provinces of

the Akkadian empire seceded.

In such circumstances, people like the Gutians probably saw an opportunity to raid, plunder,

and perhaps seize some territory for themselves.

What was going on in this new post-Akkadian world is not very clear, but the Sumerian

king list seems to indicate that the most stable area in Mesopotamia may have been Uruk.

Then, Agade was defeated, and the kingship was taken to Uruk.

In Uruk, Ur-Nigin became king.

He ruled for seven years.

Ur-Jijir, son of Ur-Nigin, ruled for six years.

Kuda ruled for six years.

Puzor-Ili ruled for five years.

Ur-Utu ruled for six years.

Five kings ruled for thirty years.

After this, we have the dynasty of Gutium and Gutian rule of the region.

Uruk was defeated, and the kingship was taken to the army of Gutium.

The army of Gutium, a king whose name is unknown.

Nibiya became king.

He ruled for three years.

Then N'gishu ruled for six years.

Ikukumlakaba ruled for six years.

Shulme ruled for six years.

Silulumesh ruled for six years.

And the list goes on until it tells us,

21 kings who ruled for 91 years and 40 days.

Gutian kings are unknown to us from any other evidence or documents, with the exception

of one who doesn't actually appear on the Sumerian king list.

His name was Eridu Wizir, and a few statues found in Nippur indicate that he was king

of Gutium and of the Four Quarters.

Other than this, little material evidence of a Gutian presence in Sumer has been discovered.

It's quite possible that they had little real control over Sumer and perhaps only sent

troops or kept a garrison in some cities in order to ensure the collection of tribute.

In some places, the Gutians may have even appointed the Nc from amongst the locals to

collect tribute and govern on their behalf.

Some areas actually seem to have flourished during the time when the Sumerian king list

claims that the Gutians ruled.

One of them was Lagash under its king, Gudia.

Believed to have ruled between the years 2141 to 2122 BC, Gudia was a very pious ruler who

claims to have built hundreds of temples for the gods, especially for Lagash's patron

deity Ningirsu.

A humble man who only took the title of Nc despite the fact that he probably ruled over

several cities, Gudia presented himself not as a powerful conqueror to be feared but more

like a shepherd protecting his flock, which in this case were the people that he ruled

over.

In nearly all of his major inscriptions, he simply praises the god Ningirsu and dedicates

his life to the deity.

This was a big change from the boasting of cities conquered and enemies slain that was

often the hallmark of the royal inscriptions of the kings who had preceded him.

At the end of the day, the Gutians were outsiders and most Sumerians, if later texts are to

be believed, considered themselves to be superior to them.

It was only a matter of time before a local Nc from Uruk named Utuhegal finally organized

a force to end the Gutian presence in Sumer.

Excerpts from an inscription attributed to Utuhegal state the following.

Enlil, the king of all the lands, commissioned Utuhegal, the mighty man, the king of Uruk,

the king of the four quarters, to destroy the name of Gutium, the snake and the scorpion

of the mountain, who carried off the kingship of Sumer to the foreign land.

We're then told that Utuhegal made preparations to attack the Gutians and prayed to the gods

for their support and blessings.

The text continues.

In that very night he went to Utu and made supplication to him.

Utuh, Enlil has given me Gutium.

Be you my ally in this.

At that place, Gutium gathered its forces and sent forth the troops against him.

Utuhegal, the mighty man, conquered them.

Then Tirigan, the king of Gutium, fled all by himself back toward Gutium.

In Dubrum, where he had taken refuge, he was treated kindly, but since the men of Dubrum

knew that Utuhegal was the king to whom Enlil had granted might, they did not set Tirigan

free.

The envoy of Utuhegal took Tirigan and his family, prisoner in Dubrum, placed stalks

of wood upon his hands and blindfolded him.

He was then brought before Utuhegal, threw himself at his feet, and he, Utuhegal, set

his foot upon his neck.

He returned the kingship to Sumer.

And so, Utuhegal defeated the Gutians and came back to Uruk to found its fifth known

dynasty.

He's the only ruler of that dynasty because unfortunately he died shortly after becoming

king, supposedly while inspecting one of Uruk's canals.

He was succeeded by his son-in-law, the former governor of Ur, a man who went by the name

Ur-Namu, who himself founded his own dynasty in 2112 BC.

Historians call it the Third Dynasty of Ur, also known as Ur III for short.

The start of Ur-Namu's reign also ushers in what we refer to as the Neo-Sumerian period.

Not much is known about Ur-Namu's early years, though it's believed that he may have supported

Utuhegal in his short war against the Gutians.

He was also married to Utuhegal's daughter.

After securing his position as king, Ur-Namu annexed the cities of Lagash and Eredu.

Like Gudia a few decades prior, he seems to have wanted his subjects to view him more

as a shepherd or father figure rather than as a conqueror.

And like another past king of Lagash, Uruk-Agina, Ur-Namu also had a code of laws.

Some believe that this may have actually been the first written code of laws in history

and not that of Uruk-Agina, whose actual code has not yet been discovered, but only referenced

to in other documents.

Though the copy that we have is badly damaged, the original code is believed to have been

made up of 40 paragraphs and contained both civil and criminal offenses along with their

punishments.

Here's a sample.

If a man committed a kidnapping, he is to be imprisoned and pay fifteen shekels of silver.

If a man proceeded by force and deflowered the virgin slave woman of another man, that

man must pay five shekels of silver.

If a man appeared as a witness and was shown to be a perjurer, he must pay fifteen shekels

of silver.

If a man knocked out the eye of another man, he shall weigh out half a mina of silver.

If a man knocked out the tooth of another man, he shall pay two shekels of silver.

If a man, in the course of a scuffle, smashed the limb of another man with a club, he shall

pay one mina of silver.

Capital punishment was reserved for more serious crimes, such as murder or adultery.

Many of the punishments seem rather lenient, even by our standards today, as it appears

that in most cases, those convicted of crimes merely had to pay a fine as punishment.

Ur-Namu is also credited by many historians for starting what's known as the Sumerian

Renaissance.

Reversing the past policies of Sargon and his successors, all of whom actively promoted

the Akkadian language, Ur-Namu and his descendants instituted policies and programs where Sumerian

language and culture would reign supreme.

Sumerian was made the official language of the government and heavily promoted in the

creation of new art and literature.

The heroic epics and hymns of old, such as the Epic of Gilgamesh, were circulated and

recited in public, and new ones were composed.

The goal was to bring back Sumer's identity as a Sumerian nation after nearly two centuries

of Akkadian rule and the instability that followed.

There were also many new construction projects as well as restorations of iconic old buildings.

For example, it was during Ur-Namu's reign that the great ziggurat of Ur was expanded

to the towering height that can still be seen today.

Though Ur-Namu set the Neo-Sumerian era in motion, it was during the 47-year reign of

his son and successor, Shulgi, that the Ur III empire reached the height of its prosperity,

size, and artistic achievements.

Shulgi was quite a character, and by his own accounts, larger than life.

If the many hymns dedicated to him are true, then during his reign, between 2094 to 2047

BC, many, including Shulgi himself, considered him to be a god.

The words of one hymn dedicated to Shulgi describe him as a prodigy.

Written in the first person, it goes like this.

I am the king.

From the womb I have been a hero.

I am Shulgi.

From the time I was born I have been a mighty man.

I am the lion with a ferocious look, born by the dragon.

I am king of the four corners.

I am the keeper, the shepherd of the black-headed ones.

I am the noble one, the god of all the lands.

Such hymns were sung both in temples and in public, and were meant to inspire Shulgi's

flock, as he'd call them, to have faith in him as their protector, much like sheep

are watched over and protected from wolves by a good shepherd.

While such hymns may have praised Shulgi's wisdom and prowess in battle, the reality

was that the Ur III state's prosperity was due not to its god-king's divine intervention

or powers, but rather the highly efficient, centralized government that ran the empire.

One thing that the kings of the Third Dynasty of Ur did adopt from the Akkadian regime was

their model of a centralized, highly bureaucratic system of government.

This became extremely important as the Ur III state expanded from a moderately sized

kingdom into a full-fledged empire with a vast network of territories and tributary

states.

We know a tremendous amount with regard to the inner workings of how the state functioned

during Shulgi's reign because there's virtually no other period in ancient Near Eastern history

where such a large quantity and variety of documentation has been discovered.

Approximately 100,000, that's right, I said 100,000 of these texts have already been translated,

with thousands more in museum storerooms waiting to be examined.

It's impossible to go over every subject covered in these documents, but the most common

topics and themes revolve around economic activity, agriculture, manufacturing, construction,

domestic and foreign trade, distribution of resources, food rations, military supplies,

troop deployments, taxation and other sources of revenue, the application of various laws,

and the like.

Though the vast majority of these are government documents, meaning that they give us little

information with regard to private citizens and businesses, we still get a window into

how the state dealt with the many civil servants, farmers, herdsmen, builders, priests, soldiers,

and scribes that it worked with.

Taxes were not paid in silver or gold, but in goods such as grain, livestock, textiles,

or even pottery.

Basically, each province paid taxes to the central government in Ur, but these were not

paid throughout the empire on the same day, or even in the same month.

That would have been too difficult for even the large bureaucracy of the Ur III state

to manage.

Instead, each province, of which there were at least 20 of them, paid their share of taxes

during a particular month.

The next month, another province or provinces would pay their yearly tax.

This system was called bala, which means exchange.

Along with being easier to manage, the bala system helped to ensure that the government

would receive at least some income every month.

Though things during Ur-Namu and Shulgi's reigns seemed to have been peaceful at home,

war and conquest were still very much a part of the Ur III empire.

Ur-Namu is said to have been killed in battle against resurgent groups of Gutians, while

Shulgi, after claiming to have avenged him, led campaigns into Elam and brought the cities

of Susa, Anshan, and even the distant kingdom of Marhashi into his orbit.

For the most part, Shulgi's reign of 47 years was one of great stability, progress, and

prosperity for both Sumer and Mesopotamia in general.

However, upon his death in 2047 BC, the empire that he in large part helped to build began

to unravel, and neither of his three successors seemed to have had his charisma and expertise

to stop it from falling apart.

In the beginning, the decline was rather gradual during the reign of Shulgi's son and successor,

Amarsin, but by the reign of the next king, Shusin, rebellions in the provinces were becoming

much more common, with several of them breaking away from the empire completely.

A lot of the empire's problems seemed to have been exacerbated by the consistent migration

into both Sumer and Akkad of a people known as the Amorites.

In Sumerian, they're called the Martu, and their presence in Mesopotamia was not a welcome

one.

The mostly settled and urban Sumerians, who at the time believed that they had reached

the pinnacle of civilization, viewed the nomadic Amorites as savages.

One Neo-Sumerian text disparagingly describes them in the following way.

The Amorites who know no grain.

The Amorites who know no house nor town.

The boars of the mountains.

The Amorite who digs up truffles.

Who does not bend his knees to cultivate the land.

Who eats raw meat.

Who has no house during his lifetime.

Who is not buried after his death.

Like the Akkadians, the Amorites were also a Semitic-speaking people, but from further

west, specifically the Levant.

They had been migrating into central and southern Mesopotamia since at least the reign of Shulgi,

who ordered what's believed to have been history's first real border wall to be constructed

as a means of keeping them out of Sumerian territory.

It didn't work, and by the reign of the third dynasty of Ur's last king, Ibi-Sin, the Amorites

had not only entered parts of Sumer and Akkad in droves, but some Amorite tribes had even

managed to take over several towns and cities, creating their own little fiefdoms in the

process.

As things went from bad to worse in the Sumerian heartland, the areas on the periphery of the

empire all broke away.

In Ilam, Ibarat, one of the kings that Shulgi had originally appointed to rule Anshan on

his behalf, declared his independence and then marched westward with an army to take

the city of Susa.

By 2004 BC, Ibi-Sin ruled an empire in name only.

In reality, his authority was limited to Ur and perhaps a few of its surrounding cities.

Virtually every other place had either succumbed to the will of Amorite chieftains, or their

NCs had declared independence from Ur to form their own little states.

This was when Ibarat's son, Kindatu, made his move.

Leading an army from Susa, he advanced on Ur, sacked the city, and took Ibi-Sin back

to Ilam as a prisoner.

In the end, we don't know what happened to Ibi-Sin, but it's likely that he was executed.

With his capture in 2004 BC, the once glorious Neo-Sumerian Empire, ruled by the Third Dynasty

of Ur, officially came to an end.

The end of the last true Sumerian state also resulted in the phasing out of many, though

not all, aspects of Sumerian culture and identity in Mesopotamia.

Without state support, the use of Sumerian as both the official and common language began

to decline rapidly.

This was in great part due to the influx of new, non-Sumerian peoples into Mesopotamia,

which altered the ethnic and linguistic makeup of Sumer.

A new civilization, which we call Babylonian, was developing that essentially combined the

Sumerian and Akkadian worlds with those of the newcomers to the region, such as the Amorites.

In the first two centuries after the fall of the Third Dynasty of Ur, Mesopotamia was

divided up into smaller kingdoms and petty states, many of which were ruled by various

Amorite clans.

Since their language was a close cousin of Akkadian, the latter became even more widespread

throughout Mesopotamia, and by 1800 BC, Sumerian ceased to exist as a spoken language, though

it was still used by scribes as a scholarly and religious one.

For this reason, it was taught in scribal schools perhaps up until the second or first

century BC.

And of course, the Sumerian influence on later Babylonian and ancient Assyrian religion and

culture pervaded both societies throughout their existence.

And not just these two civilizations, we ourselves are indebted to the Sumerians,

who were the first to develop more sophisticated farming techniques, tools like the plow, large-scale

urban planning, the mass production of everyday items such as pottery and textiles, mathematics

and accounting, and of course, probably their most famous contribution, the art of writing.

So I hope that this program has given you a broad knowledge of Sumerian history, culture,

religion, as well as highlighted some of their achievements.

As always, thanks so much for stopping by, I really appreciate it.

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Thanks again, and stay safe.

The Complete and Concise History of the Sumerians a|completa|e|concisa|história|dos|os|sumérios Historia completa y concisa de los sumerios シュメール人の完全かつ簡潔な歴史 Полная и краткая история шумеров A História Completa e Concisa dos Sumérios

today the Middle East. hoje||| hoje o Oriente Médio.

Mostly confined to Egypt and the southern half of Mesopotamia, the land that today makes |||||a|sul|metade|de|Mesopotâmia|a|terra|que|hoje|faz Principalmente confinada ao Egito e à metade sul da Mesopotâmia, a terra que hoje forma

that had been featured in the Bible, the works of Greek authors such as Herodotus and Strabo, que|tinham|sido|destacados|em|a|Bíblia|as|obras|de|gregos|autores|como||Heródoto|e|Estrabão que haviam sido mencionados na Bíblia, nas obras de autores gregos como Heródoto e Estrabão,

and the journals of medieval and renaissance travelers such as Benjamin of Tudela and e|os|diários|de|medievais|e|renascentistas|viajantes|como||Benjamim|de|Tudela|e e nos diários de viajantes medievais e renascentistas como Benjamin de Tudela e

Pietro della Valle. Pietro|da|Vale Pietro della Valle.

if any in the west at the time, knew the precise locations of. |||início||||||||| se é que alguém no ocidente na época, conhecia as localizações precisas.

By the early 1800s, archaeologists had made several important discoveries that culminated |as|||||||||| No início dos anos 1800, arqueólogos fizeram várias descobertas importantes que culminaram

with Englishman Claudius James Rich mapping the ruins of Babylon and Nineveh, where, among com o inglês Claudius James Rich mapeando as ruínas da Babilônia e Nínive, onde, entre

other places, including in Iran at sites such as Persepolis and Behistun. outros|lugares|incluindo|em|Irã|em|sítios|como|a|Persépolis|e|Behistum outros lugares, incluindo no Irã em locais como Persépolis e Behistun.

of unknown languages. de|desconhecidas|línguas de línguas desconhecidas.

After the decipherment of one of the three groups, which ended up being Old Persian, Após|a|decifração|de|um|dos|os|três|grupos|que|acabou|por|ser|Antigo|Persa |||||||||||||Old| Após a decifração de um dos três grupos, que acabou sendo o Persa Antigo,

The script that was also present at the sites of Babylon and Nineveh was revealed to be O|script|que|foi|também|presente|em|os|sítios|de|Babilônia|e|Nínive|foi|revelado|a|ser O script que também estava presente nos locais da Babilônia e Nínive foi revelado como

However, in the mid-19th century, a growing number of scholars began to suspect that this no entanto|em|o|||século|um|crescente|número|de|estudiosos|começou|a|suspeitar|que|esta No entanto, em meados do século 19, um número crescente de estudiosos começou a suspeitar que esta

written form of Akkadian, which we call cuneiform, was not developed by the Semitic language forma escrita do acádio, que chamamos de cuneiforme, não foi desenvolvida pela língua semítica.

speakers of Babylon and Assyria, but by another people. falantes|de|Babilônia|e|Assíria|mas|por|outro|povo falantes da Babilônia e da Assíria, mas por outro povo.

Many of the Babylonian inscriptions and texts that were starting to be translated at the muitos|de|as|babilônicas|inscrições|e|textos|que|estavam|começando|a|ser|traduzidos|em|o Muitas das inscrições e textos babilônicos que estavam começando a ser traduzidos na

time contained the phrase, Sumer and Akkad, as in, Land of Sumer and Akkad, or King of ||||Suméria|e|Acádia|como|em|terra|de|Suméria|e|Acádia|ou|rei|de época continham a frase, Suméria e Acádia, como em, Terra da Suméria e Acádia, ou Rei de

Sumer and Akkad. Suméria|e|Acádia Suméria e Acádia.

It's obvious that Sumer was a place, but where was it? é|óbvio|que|Sumério|foi|um|lugar|mas|onde|foi|isso É óbvio que a Suméria era um lugar, mas onde ficava?

people? pessoas povos?

some call the mother civilization of both the Babylonians and the Assyrians. alguns|chamam|a|mãe|civilização|de|tanto|os|babilônios|e|os|assírios alguns chamam de mãe das civilizações tanto dos babilônios quanto dos assírios.

rivers to what were by then the fertile flood plains of Mesopotamia, specifically in the rios||||||o||||||||a para o que já eram as férteis planícies de inundação da Mesopotâmia, especificamente na

land that today makes up most of Iraq and parts of northern Syria. terra que hoje compõe a maior parte do Iraque e partes do norte da Síria.

Mesopotamia, which means, Land between rivers, is the Greek name for the area, and it's Mesopotâmia, que significa Terra entre rios, é o nome grego para a área, e é

spread across the plain by the constant flooding of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. espalhado|por|a|planície|por|as|constantes|inundações|dos||Tigre|e|Eufrates|rios espalhado pela planície pelas constantes inundações dos rios Tigre e Eufrates.

Near East that we call the Fertile Crescent, which is a region of productive land that Próximo|Oriente|que|nós|chamamos|a|Fértil|Crescente|que|é|uma|região|de|produtiva|terra|que Oriente Próximo que chamamos de Crescente Fértil, que é uma região de terras produtivas que

and Euphrates rivers towards the Persian Gulf. ||||a|| e dos rios Eufrates em direção ao Golfo Pérsico.

One of these early farming communities that was widespread in central Mesopotamia was Uma dessas primeiras comunidades agrícolas que era ampla na Mesopotâmia central era

the Samara culture, named after the site of Samara where it was first discovered. a cultura Samara, nomeada após o local de Samara onde foi descoberta pela primeira vez.

Samaran pottery has its own distinctive style that's often decorated with geometric images A cerâmica samarana tem seu próprio estilo distinto que muitas vezes é decorado com imagens geométricas

representing natural phenomena. representando fenômenos naturais.

The early farmers of this culture seemed to have dug irrigation canals to bring nearby Os primeiros agricultores dessa cultura pareciam ter cavado canais de irrigação para trazer água das proximidades.

rivers and streams under their control. rios|e|riachos|sob|seu|controle rios e córregos sob seu controle.

Similar to the Samara, they also created very distinctive and beautiful ceramic objects semelhante|a|||eles|também|criaram|muito|distintivos|e|belos|cerâmicos|objetos Semelhante ao Samara, eles também criaram objetos cerâmicos muito distintos e bonitos.

culture. cultura

immediately before the rise of the Sumerians and the creation of their first cities. imediatamente|antes|a|ascensão|de|os|sumérios|e|a|criação|de|suas|primeiras|cidades imediatamente antes do surgimento dos sumérios e da criação de suas primeiras cidades.

The culture is named after Tel al-Ubaid, a site not too far from what would become the a|cultura|é|nomeada|em homenagem a|Tel|||um|sítio|não|muito|longe|de|o que|se|tornaria|a A cultura é nomeada em homenagem a Tel al-Ubaid, um local não muito longe do que se tornaria o

soil that could be cultivated for their crops. solo|que|poderia|ser|cultivado|para|suas|colheitas |||||||crops solo que poderia ser cultivado para suas colheitas.

Most Ubaidian sites were small villages, though by the late 5th, early 4th millennium BC, A maioria|ubaidiana|sítios|eram|pequenas|vilas|embora|por|o|final|5º|início|4º|milênio|aC most|||||||||||||| A maioria dos sítios ubaidianos eram pequenas aldeias, embora no final do 5º, início do 4º milênio a.C.,

some of these settlements are believed to have grown into towns of nearly 5000 residents alguns|de|esses|assentamentos|são|acreditados|a|ter|crescido|em|cidades|de|quase|residentes algumas dessas localidades acredita-se que tenham crescido para se tornarem cidades com quase 5000 residentes

cattle, goats, and sheep. gado|cabras|e|ovelhas gado, cabras e ovelhas.

The typical Ubaidian village generally consisted of several one-story single-family houses a|típica|ubaidiana|vila|geralmente|consistia|de|várias|||||casas A típica aldeia ubaidiana geralmente consistia em várias casas unifamiliares de um andar.

foodstuffs. alimentos alimentos.

is believed to have been an early temple and the precursor to the ziggurat that would é|acreditado|a|ter|sido|um|antigo|templo|e|o|precursor|para|a|zigurate|que|iria acredita-se que tenha sido um templo primitivo e o precursor da ziggurat que

later on dominate the skylines of many Mesopotamian cities. mais tarde dominaria os horizontes de muitas cidades mesopotâmicas.

Like the Halaf, the Ubaid also traded their unique, hand-painted pottery, as well as other assim como|o|halaf|o|ubaid|também|trocou|sua|única|||cerâmica|assim como|também|as|outras Assim como os Halaf, os Ubaid também comercializavam sua cerâmica única, pintada à mão, assim como outros

crafts such as figurines. artesanatos|como||estatuetas artesanatos como estatuetas.

been found at multiple sites throughout the Middle East, including Turkey, Iran, Syria, encontrada em vários locais ao longo do Oriente Médio, incluindo Turquia, Irã, Síria,

and across the southeastern regions of the Arabian Peninsula. e|através de|as|sudeste|regiões|da||Arábia|Península e em toda a região sudeste da Península Arábica.

Much of our understanding of Ubaid culture comes from the ruins of a city that later muito|de|nosso|entendimento|de|Ubaid|cultura|vem|de|as|ruínas|de|uma|cidade|que|mais tarde Grande parte de nossa compreensão da cultura Ubaid vem das ruínas de uma cidade que mais tarde

That city was Eridu. aquela|cidade|era|Eridu Essa cidade era Eridu.

After the kingship descended from heaven, the kingship was in Eridu. depois que|a|realeza|desceu|do|céu|a|realeza|foi|em|Eridu Depois que a realeza desceu do céu, a realeza estava em Eridu.

In Eridu, Alulim became king. em|Eridu|Alulim|tornou-se|rei Em Eridu, Alulim se tornou rei.

He ruled for 28,800 years. ele|governou|por|anos Ele governou por 28.800 anos.

Alalgar ruled for 36,000 years. Alalgar|governou|por|anos Alalgar governou por 36.000 anos.

They ruled for a total of 6,800 years. eles|governaram|por|um|total|de|anos Eles governaram por um total de 6.800 anos.

Another later Babylonian poem states, outro|posterior|babilônico|poema|afirma Outro poema babilônico posterior afirma,

city had not been made. cidade|tinha|não|sido|feita cidade não havia sido feita.

All the lands were sea. todas|as|terras|eram|mar Todas as terras eram mar.

Then Eridu made. então|Eridu|fez Então Eridu fez.

peoples of Mesopotamia may have been on to something. |de||pode|ter|sido||| da Mesopotâmia podem ter descoberto algo.

Archaeologists have determined that the site of Eridu may have been inhabited as far back ||||||||||||até|| Os arqueólogos determinaram que o local de Eridu pode ter sido habitado desde

as 8,000 BC, over 10,000 years ago. 8.000 a.C., há mais de 10.000 anos.

than they are today. do que|eles|são|hoje do que são hoje.

Such a place in those days may have seemed to have been a paradise in what was otherwise tal|um|lugar|em|aqueles|dias|pode|ter|parecido|a|ter|sido|um|paraíso|em|o que|era|de outra forma Um lugar assim naqueles dias pode ter parecido um paraíso no que era, de outra forma,

a dry, inhospitable desert. um|seco|inóspito|deserto um deserto seco e inóspito.

The local inhabitants may have even thought that it was the home of a god. os|locais|habitantes|podem|ter|até|pensado|que|isso|era|a|casa|de|um|deus Os habitantes locais podem até ter pensado que era a casa de um deus.

shrine dedicated to Enki. santuário|dedicado|a|Enki santuário dedicado a Enki.

brick room less than 8 square meters, with an altar at one end and a stand in the center de tijolos|quarto|menos|do que|quadrados|metros|com|um|altar|em|uma|extremidade|e|uma|plataforma|no||centro sala de tijolos com menos de 8 metros quadrados, com um altar em uma extremidade e um suporte no centro

for ritual offerings. para|ritual|ofertas para ofertas rituais.

offerings to the god. ofertas|para|o|deus ofertas ao deus.

in communal feasts that may have involved prayers to the god along with singing and de festas comunitárias que podem ter envolvido orações ao deus junto com cantos e

music. música música.

By 4500 BC, the temple stood on a platform about a meter high. até|aC|o|templo|estava|em|uma|plataforma|cerca de|um|metro|de altura Por volta de 4500 a.C., o templo estava em uma plataforma de cerca de um metro de altura.

until it turned into a step-like pyramid called a ziggurat. até que|isso|se transformou|em|uma|||pirâmide|chamada|uma|zigurate até que se transformou em uma pirâmide em degraus chamada zigurate.

pottery. cerâmicas de Eridu.

Copper is a very useful metal, but it's not native to southern Mesopotamia. cobre|é|um|muito|útil|metal|mas|é|não|nativo|a|sul|Mesopotâmia O cobre é um metal muito útil, mas não é nativo do sul da Mesopotâmia.

Oman or Turkey. Omã|ou|Turquia Omã ou Turquia.

items out of copper in Eridu. itens|de||cobre|em|Eridu itens de cobre em Eridu.

Zaidan in Syria. Zaidan|em|Síria Zaidan na Síria.

given time. dado|tempo momento.

city in ancient Mesopotamia with a population in the tens of thousands. cidade na antiga Mesopotâmia com uma população na casa das dezenas de milhares.

Less than 200 kilometers northwest of Eridu is the site of Uruk. Menos de 200 quilômetros a noroeste de Eridu está o local de Uruk.

It's here that most archaeologists and historians believe that the world's first true city came É aqui que a maioria dos arqueólogos e historiadores acredita que a primeira verdadeira cidade do mundo surgiu.

into being sometime during the 4th millennium BC. em algum momento durante o 4º milênio a.C.

a medium-sized town. uma|||cidade uma cidade de tamanho médio.

However, in the 4th millennium BC, this would have been a mega-urban center, a place that no entanto|em|o|4º|milênio|aC|isso|teria|de|sido|um|||centro|um|lugar|que No entanto, no 4º milênio a.C., isso teria sido um mega-centro urbano, um lugar que

comprehended. compreendido compreender.

4000 to 3100 BC the Uruk phenomenon, or the Uruk period. ||a|||||| 4000 a 3100 a.C. de fenômeno Uruk, ou período Uruk.

It's also believed by many archaeologists and historians that sometime during this period, Também é acreditado por muitos arqueólogos e historiadores que, em algum momento durante esse período,

a people whose real origin is unknown may have entered into the region and mixed with um povo cuja verdadeira origem é desconhecida pode ter entrado na região e se misturado com

They however would call themselves Sagiga, meaning the black-headed people, and their eles|no entanto|verbo auxiliar condicional|chamariam|a si mesmos|Sagiga|significando|o|||povo|e|sua No entanto, eles se chamariam de Sagiga, significando o povo de cabeça preta, e sua

homeland Kiendir. |Kiendir terra natal Kiendir.

In the past, villages were believed to have been ruled by a small council of elders presided no|passado||vilas|eram|acreditadas|a|ter|sido|governadas|por|um|pequeno|conselho|de|anciãos|presidido No passado, acreditava-se que as aldeias eram governadas por um pequeno conselho de anciãos presidido

over by a tribal chieftain. por|um||tribal|chefe por um chefe tribal.

military, and political elites. militares e políticas.

the person at the top was a sort of priest-king who held both religious and secular authority. a|pessoa|no|topo||era|um|tipo|de|||que|detinha|tanto|religiosa|e|secular|autoridade a pessoa no topo era uma espécie de rei-sacerdote que detinha tanto autoridade religiosa quanto secular.

In the past, everyday items such as pottery and textiles were produced at home and generally no|passado|passado|cotidianos|itens|como||cerâmica|e|têxteis|foram|produzidos|em|casa|e|geralmente No passado, itens do dia a dia, como cerâmica e têxteis, eram produzidos em casa e geralmente

for private use. para|uso|privado para uso privado.

task. tarefa tarefa.

They simply had to be well-made and useful. eles|simplesmente|tinham|que|ser|||e|úteis Eles simplesmente precisavam ser bem feitos e úteis.

An example of this are the beveled-rimmed bowls discovered in Uruk. um|exemplo|de|isso|são|as|||tigelas|descobertas|em|Uruk Um exemplo disso são as tigelas com bordas chanfradas descobertas em Uruk.

The day-to-day functioning of such an ancient, urban society required some type of authority o||||funcionamento|de|tal|uma|antiga|urbana|sociedade|exigia|algum|tipo|de|autoridade O funcionamento diário de uma sociedade urbana tão antiga exigia algum tipo de autoridade

a large temple there. um|grande|templo|lá um grande templo lá.

to the general population. para|a|geral|população para a população em geral.

that needed to be accounted for, and who depended on the temple's redistribution of resources que|precisavam|de|ser|contabilizados|para|e|que|dependiam|da|a|do templo|redistribuição|de|recursos que precisavam ser contabilizadas, e que dependiam da redistribuição de recursos do templo

for their survival. para|sua|sobrevivência para sua sobrevivência.

pictographs that recorded the transfer of commodities such as grain, beer, and livestock. pictogramas|que|registravam|a|transferência|de|commodities|como||grão|cerveja|e|gado pictogramas que registravam a transferência de mercadorias como grãos, cerveja e gado.

all at once or by a single individual. tudo|de|uma vez|ou|por|um|único|indivíduo tudo de uma vez ou por um único indivíduo.

you guessed it, barley. você|adivinhou|isso|cevada você adivinhou, cevada.

Sometimes though, the meaning was not as clear and had to be read by association with another às vezes|embora|o|significado|era|não|tão|claro|e|tinha|que|ser|lido|por|associação|com|outro Às vezes, no entanto, o significado não era tão claro e tinha que ser lido por associação com outro

symbol. símbolo símbolo.

Coupled with the sign of a human head, the two together meant to eat. combinado|com|o|sinal|de|uma|humana|cabeça|os|dois|juntos|significavam|a|comer Juntamente com o sinal de uma cabeça humana, os dois juntos significavam comer.

faster and with a reed stylus by making wedged impressions into a soft tablet of clay, which mais rápido|e|com|um|junco|estilete|ao|fazer|cunhadas|impressões|em|uma|macia|tábua|de|argila|que mais rapidamente e com um estilete de junco, fazendo impressões em forma de cunha em uma tábua de argila macia, que

we today call cuneiform. nós|hoje|chamamos|cuneiforme hoje chamamos de cuneiforme.

wedged impressions permanent. cunhadas|impressões|permanentes impressões em cunha permanentes.

Sumerian are one syllable in length. sumério|são|uma|sílaba|em|comprimento Os sumérios têm uma sílaba de comprimento.

Mesopotamia. Mesopotâmia.

seals. selos Como o nome sugere, estes são cilindros, geralmente feitos de pedra ou argila, mas às vezes

As their name implies, these are cylinders, usually made out of stone or clay, but sometimes como|seu|nome|implica|estes|são|cilindros|geralmente|feitos|de||pedra|ou|argila|mas|às vezes

even baskets. até|cestos até cestos.

documents coming from someone in a position of power, such as a priest or high-ranking documentos|que vêm|de|alguém|em|uma|posição|de|poder|como|um||sacerdote|ou|| vindos de alguém em uma posição de poder, como um sacerdote ou um burocrata de alto escalão.

bureaucrat. burocrata

throughout much of the ancient Near East between the 4th and 3rd centuries BC. ao longo de|muito|do|o|antigo|Próximo|Oriente|entre|os|4º|e|3º|séculos|aC ao longo de grande parte do antigo Oriente Próximo entre os séculos IV e III a.C.

Archaeologists have uncovered numerous remains of Uruk-style pottery and architecture at arqueólogos|têm|descoberto|numerosas|restos|de|||cerâmica|e|arquitetura|em Arqueólogos descobriram numerosos restos de cerâmica e arquitetura no estilo Uruk em

sites in Syria, Iran, and Turkey. sítios|em|Síria|Irã|e|Turquia locais na Síria, Irã e Turquia.

such as copper, obsidian, lead, gold, silver, wood, and stone for buildings. como||cobre|obsidiana|chumbo|ouro|prata|madeira|e|pedra|para|construções como cobre, obsidiana, chumbo, ouro, prata, madeira e pedra para construções.

really functioned. realmente|funcionou realmente funcionou.

Before this, power was in the hands of high-ranking priests whose job, along with religious duties, antes|isso|poder|estava|nas|mãos|mãos|de|||sacerdotes|cujo|trabalho|junto|com|religiosas|obrigações Antes disso, o poder estava nas mãos de sacerdotes de alto escalão, cuja função, junto com os deveres religiosos,

services. serviços serviços.

foreign enemies. estrangeiros|inimigos inimigos estrangeiros.

Being a pious priest or priestess didn't mean that such a person was a good warrior or military ser|um|piedoso|sacerdote|ou|sacerdotisa|não|significa|que|tal|uma|pessoa|era|um|bom|guerreiro|ou|militar Ser um sacerdote ou sacerdotisa piedoso não significava que tal pessoa era um bom guerreiro ou militar

strategist. estrategista.

As cities grew in size, so too did competition for scarce resources and farmland, and eventually, À medida que as cidades cresciam em tamanho, a competição por recursos escassos e terras agrícolas também aumentava, e eventualmente,

armed conflicts between city-states occurred. conflitos armados entre cidades-estado ocorreram.

importance, and it's probably due to this that the first kings arose amongst the growing importância, e provavelmente é devido a isso que os primeiros reis surgiram entre a crescente

population of ancient Mesopotamia. população da antiga Mesopotâmia.

Though initially it may have been a temporary position needed only during war, eventually Embora inicialmente pudesse ter sido uma posição temporária necessária apenas durante a guerra, eventualmente

The rulers of city-states generally had one of three titles, En, which roughly translates os|governantes|de|||geralmente|tinham|um|de|três|títulos|En|que|aproximadamente|traduz Os governantes das cidades-estado geralmente tinham um dos três títulos, En, que se traduz aproximadamente

to lord, Ensi, which was a governor or local king, and Lugal, which was generally given para|senhor|ensi|que|era|um|governador|ou|local|rei|e|lugal|que|era|geralmente|dado para senhor, Ensi, que era um governador ou rei local, e Lugal, que geralmente era dado

For example, if a king happened to rule over more than one city, then he could be addressed Por|exemplo|se|um|rei|acontecesse|a|governar|sobre|mais|de|uma|cidade|então|ele|poderia|ser|chamado Por exemplo, se um rei governasse mais de uma cidade, então ele poderia ser chamado

A Lugal could have several Ensis ruling other cities on his behalf. o|Lugal|poderia|ter||ensis|governando|||em|seu|nome Um Lugal poderia ter vários Ensis governando outras cidades em seu nome.

Of all of these structures, the large, step-pyramid-like temple known as the ziggurat was the most de|todas|de|essas|estruturas|a|grande||||templo|conhecido|como|a|zigurate|era|o|mais De todas essas estruturas, o grande templo em forma de pirâmide escalonada conhecido como zigurate era o mais

important. importante importante.

The ziggurat was not just a place of worship, but the actual terrestrial home of the city's a|zigurrate|era|não|apenas|um|lugar|de|adoração|mas|a|verdadeira|terrestre|casa|de|o|da cidade A zigurate não era apenas um lugar de adoração, mas a verdadeira casa terrestre do

patron god on earth. patrono|deus|em|terra deus patrono da cidade na terra.

people. pessoas pessoas.

often interfered in the affairs of humans. frequentemente|interferiam|nos|os|assuntos|de|humanos frequentemente interferiam nos assuntos dos humanos.

items. itens .

For example, there was a god of the sky, sun, and moon, but also a god of the plow, bricks, Por|exemplo|havia|era|um|deus|de|o|céu|sol|e|lua|mas|também|um|deus|de|a|arado|tijolos Por exemplo, havia um deus do céu, do sol e da lua, mas também um deus do arado, dos tijolos,

An was the god of the sky and the heavens, whose main temple was in Uruk. An|era|o|deus|do|o|céu|e|os|céus|cujo|principal|templo|era|em|Uruk An era o deus do céu e dos céus, cujo principal templo estava em Uruk.

the god of the air. o|deus|de|o|ar o deus do ar.

and magicians. e|magos e magos.

Another popular god was Utu, the god of the sun, who was associated with justice and the outro|popular|deus|era|Utu|o|deus|de|o|sol|que|era|associado|com|justiça|e|a Outro deus popular era Utu, o deus do sol, que estava associado à justiça e ao

Then of course there was Nana, the god of the moon and the patron deity of the city então|de|curso|havia|era|Nana|o|deus|da|a|lua|e|a|patrono|divindade|de|a|cidade Então, é claro, havia Nana, o deus da lua e o deus patrono da cidade

of Ur. de|Ur de Ur.

One of the more powerful gods was Ningirsu, the patron deity of the city-state of Lagash, uma|de|os|mais|poderosos|deuses|era|Ningirsu|o|patrono|divindade|de|a|||de|Lagash Um dos deuses mais poderosos era Ningirsu, o deus patrono da cidade-estado de Lagash,

These have greatly helped us to piece together the political history of Sumer and its various estes|têm|muito|ajudado|nós|a|montar|juntos|a|política|história|de|Suméria|e|sua|várias Esses ajudaram muito a montar a história política da Suméria e suas várias

kingdoms. reinos reinos.

One of these early inscriptions, along with the depiction of a king, is of Ur-Nanshi, um|de|esses|antigos|inscrições|junto|com|a|representação|de|um|rei|é|de|| Uma dessas inscrições antigas, junto com a representação de um rei, é de Ur-Nanshi,

the ruler of the city-state of Lagash, who's believed to have reigned between the years o|governante|de|a|||de|Lagash|que é|acredita-se|a|ter|reinado|entre|os|anos o governante da cidade-estado de Lagash, que se acredita ter reinado entre os anos

2494 to 2465 BC. a|aC 2494 a 2465 a.C.

One of the most famous depictions of Ur-Nanshi is a limestone relief of the king with what um|dos|as|mais|famosas|representações|de|||é|um|de calcário|relevo|de|o|rei|com|o que Uma das representações mais famosas de Ur-Nanshi é um relevo de calcário do rei com o que

appears to be a basket of clay bricks on his head. parece|a|ser|uma|cesta|de|argila|tijolos|em|sua|cabeça parece ser uma cesta de tijolos de argila na cabeça.

Currently in the Louvre, the relief depicts the king in one of his most important religious atualmente|no|o|Louvre|o|relevo|retrata|o|rei|em|uma|das|suas|mais|importantes|religiosas Atualmente no Louvre, o relevo retrata o rei em um de seus mais importantes religiosos

Ur-Nanshi's other vital role was as the military leader of Lagash. ||outro|vital|papel|foi|como|o|militar|líder|de|Lagash O outro papel vital de Ur-Nanshi era como o líder militar de Lagash.

From various texts that have been put together, we know that he went to war with the neighboring de|vários|textos|que|foram|sido|colocados|juntos|nós|sabemos|que|ele|foi|a|guerra|com|as|vizinhas A partir de vários textos que foram reunidos, sabemos que ele foi à guerra com os estados-cidade vizinhos

city-states of Ur and Umar. ||de|Ur|e|Umar de Ur e Umar.

In fact, it may have been during his reign that a centuries-old rivalry was started with de|fato|isso|pode|ter|sido|durante|seu|reinado|que|uma|||rivalidade|foi|iniciada|com Na verdade, pode ter sido durante seu reinado que uma rivalidade centenária começou com

name on a votive object. nome|em|um|votivo|objeto

For example, one stone vessel dated to 2650 BC and found in the ruins of a temple merely por|exemplo|uma|de pedra|vaso|datado|a|aC|e|encontrado|em|as|ruínas|de|um|templo|meramente Por exemplo, um vaso de pedra datado de 2650 a.C. e encontrado nas ruínas de um templo apenas

reads, lê lê,

Embegaresi, King of Kish. Embegaresi|Rei|de|Quis Embegaresi, Rei de Kish.

Place this for Ningirsu. coloque|isso|para|Ningirsu Coloque isso para Ningirsu.

Lugal-sha-engur, is the ruler of Lagash. |||é|o|governante|de|Lagash Lugal-sha-engur, é o governante de Lagash.

At first glance, the text seems to tell us little except that Musalim, the king of the à|primeira|vista|o|texto|parece|a|contar|nós|pouco|exceto|que|Musalim|o|rei|de|a À primeira vista, o texto parece nos dizer pouco, exceto que Musalim, o rei da

city of Kish, built a temple for the god Ningirsu, and that Lugal-sha-engur is the |||||||||||que||||| cidade de Kish, construiu um templo para o deus Ningirsu, e que Lugal-sha-engur é o

NC, or ruler, of Lagash. NC, ou governante, de Lagash.

However, combined with other documents that have been uncovered, we learn that Musalim, No entanto, combinado com outros documentos que foram descobertos, aprendemos que Musalim,

in other city-states, such as those of rivals Lagash and Umar. em|outras|||como|as|aquelas|de|rivais|Lagash|e|Umar em outros estados da cidade, como os de seus rivais Lagash e Umar.

Regardless, we're told in a later text by King Enmetena of Lagash the following. independentemente|nós estamos|informados|em|um|posterior|texto|por|Rei|Enmetena|de|Lagash|o|seguinte Independentemente disso, somos informados em um texto posterior pelo Rei Enmetena de Lagash o seguinte.

Enlil, king of all the lands, father of all the gods, by his firm command, fixed the border Enlil|rei|de|todas|as|terras|pai|de|todos|os|deuses|por|seu|firme|comando|fixou|a|fronteira Enlil, rei de todas as terras, pai de todos os deuses, por seu firme comando, fixou a fronteira

between the kingdom of Lagash and the kingdom of Umar. entre|o|reino|de|Lagash|e|o|reino|de|Umar entre o reino de Lagash e o reino de Umar.

Misalim, king of Kish, at the command of the goddess Ishtaran, measured the field and set Misalim|rei|de|Quis|a|o|comando|de|a|deusa|Ishtaran|mediu|o|campo|e|estabeleceu Misalim, rei de Kish, a mando da deusa Ishtaran, mediu o campo e estabeleceu

up a boundary stone there. em|uma|de limite|pedra|lá uma pedra de limite lá.

The actual text literally says, o|atual|texto|literalmente|diz O texto real diz literalmente,

respectively." respectivamente."

Ningirsu, warrior of Enlil, at his just command, made war with Umar. Ningirsu|guerreiro|de|Enlil|a|seu|justo|comando|fez|guerra|com|Umar Ningirsu, guerreiro de Enlil, a seu justo comando, fez guerra com Umar.

it on a plain. isso|em|uma|planície ela em uma planície.

ruler of Umar, made the boundary extend from the Nun Canal to the Guedena. governante|de|Umar|fez|a|fronteira|estender|de|o|Nuno|Canal|até|a|Guedena governante de Umar, fez a fronteira se estender do Canal Nun até Guedena.

stone of Misalim. pedra|de|Misalim de Misalim.

He did not cross into the plain of Umar. ele|não|não|cruzou|para|a|planície|de|Umar Ele não cruzou para a planície de Umar.

in the boundary channel of Ningirsu and the boundary channel of Nanshi. em|o|limite|canal|de|Ningirsu|e|o|limite|canal|de|Nanshi no canal de limite de Ningirsu e no canal de limite de Nanshi.

Urluma fled, but he, Enmetena, killed him in Umar. Urluma|fugiu|mas|ele|Enmetena|matou|ele|em|Umar Urluma fugiu, mas ele, Enmetena, o matou em Umar.

One thing, though, is clear. uma|coisa|porém|é|claro Uma coisa, no entanto, é clara.

The city-states of Lagash and Umar had what seems to have been a long conflict over the as|||de|Lagash|e|Umar|tiveram|o que|parece|a|ter|sido|um|longo|conflito|sobre|a As cidades-estado de Lagash e Umar tiveram o que parece ter sido um longo conflito sobre o

the forces of Umar. as|forças|de|Umar as forças de Umar.

It's from different texts and monuments such as these that scholars have been able to slowly isso|de|diferentes|textos|e|monumentos|como||estes|que|estudiosos|têm|sido|capazes|de|lentamente É a partir de textos e monumentos diferentes como estes que os estudiosos conseguiram lentamente

left unanswered. deixado|sem resposta deixada sem resposta.

For example, one major issue is that we don't know Umar's side of the story of its conflict por|exemplo|uma|importante|questão|é|que|nós|não|sabemos|de Umar|lado|da|a|história|de|seu|conflito Por exemplo, um grande problema é que não conhecemos o lado de Umar na história de seu conflito

with Lagash. com|Lagash com Lagash.

the city-state from the start. a|||desde|o|início a cidade-estado desde o início.

its long-term rival, but as we'll soon see, Umar would strike back. seu|||rival|mas|como|nós vamos|em breve|ver|Umar|iria|atacar|de volta seu rival de longa data, mas como veremos em breve, Umar retaliaria.

In addition to Eredu, Uruk, Kish, Lagash, and Umar, there were several other important em|adição|a|Eredu|Uruk|Quis|Lagash|e|Umar|havia||várias|outras|importantes Além de Eredu, Uruk, Kish, Lagash e Umar, havia vários outros importantes

cities of ancient Sumer. cidades|de|antigas|Suméria cidades da antiga Suméria.

Two of the most prominent were Ur and Nippur. duas|de|as|mais|proeminentes|eram|Ur|e|Nippur Duas das mais proeminentes eram Ur e Nippur.

Ur, though, is the more well-known of the two, and perhaps the most famous Sumerian Ur|embora|é|a|mais|||de|as|duas|e|talvez|a|mais|famosa|suméria Ur, no entanto, é a mais conhecida das duas, e talvez a cidade suméria mais famosa de todas devido a duas coisas.

It's mentioned in the Bible as the birthplace of the prophet Abraham, and also as the place isso|mencionado|em|a|Bíblia|como|o|local de nascimento|de|o|profeta|Abraão|e|também|como|o|lugar É mencionado na Bíblia como o local de nascimento do profeta Abraão, e também como o lugar

where a cache of marvelous objects were discovered in the 1920s by a team of archaeologists led onde|um|cache|de|maravilhosos|objetos|foram|descobertos|em|a|década de 1920|por|uma|equipe|de|arqueólogos|liderada onde um depósito de objetos maravilhosos foi descoberto na década de 1920 por uma equipe de arqueólogos liderada

by Sir Charles Leonard Woolley. por|Sir|Charles|Leonard|Woolley pelo Sir Charles Leonard Woolley.

Located on what was once the banks of the Euphrates River, Ur was the home of Nana, localizado|em|o que|foi|uma vez|as|margens|do|o|Eufrates|rio|Ur|foi|a|casa|de|Nana Localizada no que antes eram as margens do rio Eufrates, Ur era o lar de Nana,

the god of the moon. o|deus|da|a|lua o deus da lua.

the early dynastic period. o|early|dinástico|período período dinástico inicial.

intact and had over the centuries avoided grave robbers. intactos e ao longo dos séculos evitaram ladrões de túmulos.

The 17 extremely elaborate tombs are believed to have belonged to members of Ur's ruling as|extremamente|elaboradas|tumbas|são|acreditadas|a|ter|pertencido|a|membros|da|Ur|governante As 17 tumbas extremamente elaboradas são acreditadas como pertencentes a membros da classe

class or the royal family itself. dominante de Ur ou da própria família real.

they either killed themselves or were killed and then buried along with the king in the eles|ou|mataram|a si mesmos|ou|foram|mortos|e|então|enterrados|junto|com|o|rei|em|a eles ou se mataram ou foram mortos e depois enterrados junto com o rei no

tomb. túmulo.

Whether or not the attendants and soldiers went to their end willingly isn't known, se|ou|não|os|atendentes|e|soldados|foram|a|seu|fim|voluntariamente|não é|conhecido Se os atendentes e soldados foram ao seu fim voluntariamente ou não não é conhecido,

burials like this one found in Mesopotamia. sepultamentos reais como este na Mesopotâmia.

of Nippur. de|Nippur de Nippur.

This was the location of the Ikur, the temple dedicated to the supreme god of the Sumerian isso|foi|a|localização|de|o|Ikur|o|templo|dedicado|a|o|supremo|deus|de|o|sumério Este foi o local do Ikur, o templo dedicado ao deus supremo do panteão sumério

pantheon Enlil. Enlil.

Due to its status as a holy city, Nippur is said to never have had a king. devido|a|seu|status|como|uma|sagrada|cidade|Nippur|é|dito|a|nunca|ter|tido|um|rei Devido ao seu status como uma cidade sagrada, diz-se que Nippur nunca teve um rei.

Officially, it was politically neutral. oficialmente|isso|era|politicamente|neutro Oficialmente, era politicamente neutra.

favor. favor.

egalitarian, at one time or another, the divide between rich and poor widened, often leading igualitárias, em algum momento, a divisão entre ricos e pobres se ampliou, muitas vezes levando

to unrest and sometimes revolution. a agitações e, às vezes, revoluções.

In the 24th century BC, such a series of events occurred in the city-state of Lagash. no|o|24º|século|aC|tal|uma|série|de|eventos|ocorreu|em|a|||de|Lagash No século 24 a.C., uma série de eventos ocorreu na cidade-estado de Lagash.

Iannatum, and Enmetena. Iannatum e Enmetena.

However, for reasons unknown, the dynasty founded by Urnanshi was disbanded, with a No entanto, por razões desconhecidas, a dinastia fundada por Urnanshi foi dissolvida, com um

ruler. governante de Lagash.

Such a move was unprecedented, at least during the early dynastic period. Tal movimento foi sem precedentes, pelo menos durante o início do período dinástico.

to a whole new level. a|um|todo|novo|nível a um nível totalmente novo.

and even funerals. e|até|funerais e até funerais.

name is also read Uru-inim-gina. nome|é|também|lido||| nome também é lido como Uru-inim-gina.

for coming up with possibly the first known written code of laws. por|vir|a|com|possivelmente|o|primeiro|conhecido|escrito|código|de|leis por ter criado possivelmente o primeiro código de leis escrito conhecido.

and his hand had grasped him out of the multitude, then Ningirsu enjoined upon him the divine e|sua|mão|tinha|agarrado|ele|de|da|a|multidão|então|Ningirsu|ordenou|a|ele|os|divinos e sua mão o agarrou da multidão, então Ningirsu impôs a ele os decretos divinos

decrees of former days. dos dias antigos.

Urukagina held close to the word which his king, Ningirsu, spoke to him. Urukagina se apegou à palavra que seu rei, Ningirsu, lhe disse.

He banned the man in charge of the boatmen from seizing the boats. ele|proibiu|o|homem|em|comando|de|os|barqueiros|de|apreender|os|barcos Ele proibiu o homem responsável pelos barqueiros de apreender os barcos.

He banned the head of the shepherds from seizing the donkeys and sheep. ele|proibiu|o|chefe|de|os|pastores|de|apreender|os|burros|e|ovelhas Ele proibiu o chefe dos pastores de apreender os burros e ovelhas.

He banned the man in charge of the fisheries from seizing the fisheries. ele|proibiu|o|homem|em|comando|de|as|pescarias|de|apreender|as|pescarias Ele proibiu o homem responsável pelas pescarias de apreender as pescarias.

By his own account, it seems that Urukagina was a man of the people. por|seu|próprio|relato|isso|parece|que|Urukagina|era|um|homem|do|o|povo Segundo seu próprio relato, parece que Urukagina era um homem do povo.

king of its great rival, the city-state of Umma. rei|de|seu|grande|rival|a|||de|Umma rei de seu grande rival, a cidade-estado de Umma.

In 2341 BC, a man named Lugal-Zagazi became the new Nc of Umma. em|aC|um|homem|chamado|||tornou-se|o|novo|rei|de|Umma Em 2341 a.C., um homem chamado Lugal-Zagazi se tornou o novo Nc de Umma.

Not much is known about his life before he became king, but in his second year as Umma's não|muito|é|conhecido|sobre|sua|vida|antes que|ele|se tornou|rei|mas|em|seu|segundo|ano|como|de Umma Não se sabe muito sobre sua vida antes de se tornar rei, mas em seu segundo ano como rei de Umma,

he attacked and ultimately conquered the city-state of Lagash. ele|atacou|e|finalmente|conquistou|a|||de|Lagash ele atacou e finalmente conquistou a cidade-estado de Lagash.

Perhaps out of vengeance for so many centuries of being bullied by its once great rival, talvez|por|de|vingança|por|tantos|muitos|séculos|de|ser|intimidado|por|seu|outrora|grande|rival Talvez por vingança por tantos séculos sendo intimidado por seu outrora grande rival,

Lugal-Zagazi's men burned, plundered, and destroyed Lagash, its capital of Girsu, and ||homens|queimaram|saquearam|e|destruíram|Lagash|sua|capital|de|Girsu|e os homens de Lugal-Zagazi queimaram, saquearam e destruíram Lagash, sua capital Girsu, e

In one text that was uncovered, a scribe from Lagash lamented the destruction of Ningirsu's em|um|texto|que|foi|descoberto|um|escriba|de|Lagash|lamentou|a|destruição|de|Ningirsu Em um texto que foi descoberto, um escriba de Lagash lamentou a destruição da cidade de Ningirsu e amaldiçoou Lugal-Zagazi.

city and cursed Lugal-Zagazi. Ele Lugal-Zagazi arruinou o campo de cevada de Ningirsu tanto quanto havia sido arado.

He Lugal-Zagazi has ruined the barley field of Ningirsu as much as had been plowed.

It is not the sin of Uruk-Hagina, the king of Girsu. isso|é|não|o|pecado|de|||o|rei|de|Girsu Não é o pecado de Uruk-Hagina, o rei de Girsu.

May Nidaba, the personal goddess of Lugal-Zagazi, the Nc of Umma, make him bear all his sins. que|Nidaba|a|pessoal|deusa|de|||o|Nc|de|Umma|faça|ele|suportar|todos|seus|pecados Que Nidaba, a deusa pessoal de Lugal-Zagazi, o Nc de Umma, faça com que ele suporte todos os seus pecados.

Lugal-Zagazi though did not stop with Lagash, and would go on to claim to control not just ||embora|não||parasse|com|Lagash|e|iria|continuar|a|a|reivindicar|a|controlar|não|apenas Lugal-Zagazi, no entanto, não parou em Lagash e continuou a afirmar que controlava não apenas

all of Sumer, but the lands from the lower sea, that is the Persian Gulf, to the upper toda|de|Suméria|mas|as|terras|de|o|baixo|mar|que|é|o|Persa|Golfo|a|o|alto toda a Suméria, mas as terras do mar inferior, que é o Golfo Pérsico, até o mar superior,

sea, meaning the Mediterranean. ou seja, o Mediterrâneo.

In a well-known inscription on Arvaz that he himself had commissioned, Lugal-Zagazi Em uma inscrição bem conhecida em Arvaz que ele mesmo havia encomendado, Lugal-Zagazi

wants us to know the following. quer|nós|a|saber|o|seguinte quer que saibamos o seguinte.

When Enlil, the king of all the lands, had given the kingship of the land to Lugal-Zagazi, quando|Enlil|o|rei|de|todas|as|terras|tinha|dado|a|realeza|de|a|terra|para|| Quando Enlil, o rei de todas as terras, havia dado a realeza da terra a Lugal-Zagazi,

before him, then all the people from the lower sea, along the Tigris and Euphrates to the diante de|ele|então|todo|o|povo|do|o|baixo|mar|ao longo de|o|Tigre|e|Eufrates|até o| diante dele, então todo o povo do mar inferior, ao longo do Tigre e do Eufrates até o

The people of all the lands lie peacefully in the meadow under his rule. o|povo|de|todas|as|terras|deita|pacificamente|em|a|pradaria|sob|seu|domínio O povo de todas as terras repousa pacificamente no campo sob seu domínio.

All the sovereigns of Sumer and the Ncs of all the foreign lands bowed down before him todos|os|soberanos|de|Suméria|e|os|Ncs|de|todas|as|estrangeiras|terras|se curvaram|para baixo|diante de|ele Todos os soberanos da Suméria e os Ncs de todas as terras estrangeiras se curvaram diante dele

in Uruk. em|Uruk em Uruk.

If this were true, then Lugal-Zagazi would have created the first real empire in history. se|isso|fosse|verdade|então|||teria||criado|o|primeiro|real|império|na|história Se isso fosse verdade, então Lugal-Zagazi teria criado o primeiro verdadeiro império da história.

Lugal-Zagazi would be defeated by a man who would arguably become the most celebrated ||verbo auxiliar condicional|ser|derrotado|por|um|homem|que|verbo auxiliar condicional|provavelmente|se tornaria|o|mais|celebrado Lugal-Zagazi seria derrotado por um homem que, sem dúvida, se tornaria o mais celebrado

He was not a Sumerian, but an Akkadian whose birth name is unknown, but who would call ele|era|não|um|sumério|mas|um|acádio|cujo|nascimento|nome|é|desconhecido|mas|que|verbo auxiliar condicional|chamaria Ele não era sumério, mas um acádio cujo nome de nascimento é desconhecido, mas que se chamaria

himself Sharukhin, meaning legitimate king. ele mesmo|Sharukhin|significando|legítimo|rei ele mesmo Sharukhin, significando rei legítimo.

One story of his early years is that his mother, who was a priestess of the goddess Ishtar, Uma|história|de|seus|primeiros|anos|é|que|sua|mãe|que|era|uma|sacerdotisa|de|a|deusa|Ishtar Uma história de seus primeiros anos é que sua mãe, que era uma sacerdotisa da deusa Ishtar,

The legend continues, with Sargon eventually becoming the cupbearer of Ur-Zubaba, the king a|lenda|continua|com|Sargão|eventualmente|tornando-se|o|copeiro|de|||o|rei A lenda continua, com Sargão eventualmente se tornando o copeiro de Ur-Zubaba, o rei

of the city-state of Kish. de|a|||de|Quis da cidade-estado de Kish.

It was during this time that Lugal-Zagazi of Umma was gobbling up the city-states of isso|foi|durante|este|tempo|que|||de|Umma|estava|devorando|para cima|as|||de Foi durante esse tempo que Lugal-Zagazi de Umma estava devorando as cidades-estado de

However, his plans for near-eastern domination came to an end when Sargon and his band of no entanto|seus|planos|para|||dominação|vieram|a|um|fim|quando|Sargão|e|seus|grupo|de No entanto, seus planos de dominação do oriente próximo chegaram ao fim quando Sargão e seu grupo de

followers marched south from Kish to Uruk and captured Lugal-Zagazi. seguidores marcharam para o sul de Kish para Uruk e capturaram Lugal-Zagazi.

The document known as the Sumerian King List tells us the following. ||||||rei||||| O documento conhecido como a Lista dos Reis Sumérios nos conta o seguinte.

In Uruk, Lugal-Zagazi became king and reigned for 25 years. Em Uruk, Lugal-Zagazi se tornou rei e reinou por 25 anos.

One king reigned for 25 years. um|rei|reinou|por|anos Um rei reinou por 25 anos.

In an old Babylonian copy of a document attributed to him, he speaks of himself in the following em|uma|antiga|babilônica|cópia|de|um|documento|atribuído|a|ele|ele|fala|de|si mesmo|em|a|seguinte Em uma antiga cópia babilônica de um documento atribuído a ele, ele fala de si mesmo da seguinte

way. maneira forma.

Sargon, the king of Akkad, the bailiff of Ishtar, the king of the universe, the anointed Sargão|o|rei|de|Acádia|o|administrador|de|Ishtar|o|rei|de|o|universo|o|ungido Sargão, o rei de Acádia, o agente de Ishtar, o rei do universo, o ungido

one of An, the king of the land, the governor of Enlil. de An, o rei da terra, o governador de Enlil.

He vanquished Uruk in battle and smote fifty governors and the city by the mace of the ele|venceu|Uruk|em|batalha|e|feriu|cinquenta|governadores|e|a|cidade|com|o|maça|de|o Ele venceu Uruk em batalha e feriu cinquenta governadores e a cidade com o maço do

god Elaba. deus|Elaba deus Elaba.

And he destroyed its fortress and captured Lugal-Zagazi, the king of Uruk, in battle. e|ele|destruiu|sua|fortaleza|e|capturou|||o|rei|de|Uruk|em|batalha E ele destruiu sua fortaleza e capturou Lugal-Zagazi, o rei de Uruk, em batalha.

He led him to the gate of Enlil in a neck stock. ele|levou|ele|para|a|porta|de|Enlil|em|um|pescoço|tronco Ele o levou até o portão de Enlil com um colar no pescoço.

Sargon of Akkad vanquished Ur in battle and smote the city and destroyed its fortress. Sargão|de|Acádia|venceu|Ur|em|batalha|e|feriu|a|cidade|e|destruiu|sua|fortaleza Sargão da Acádia derrotou Ur em batalha e feriu a cidade e destruiu sua fortaleza.

It's with Sargon's conquest of southern Mesopotamia around 2334 BC that the early dynastic period é|com|Sargão|conquista|de|sul|Mesopotâmia|por volta de|aC|que|o|early|dinástico|período É com a conquista de Sargão da Mesopotâmia do sul por volta de 2334 a.C. que começa o período dinástico inicial.

of Sumer comes to an end. de|Suméria|vem|a|um|fim o Sumer vem ao fim.

Unlike Lugal-Zagazi, who may have only boasted about conquering an empire from the Persian ao contrário de|||que|pode|ter|apenas|se gabou|sobre|conquistar|um|império|de|o|Persa Ao contrário de Lugal-Zagazi, que pode ter apenas se gabado de conquistar um império do Golfo Persa

Gulf to the Mediterranean Sea, most scholars believe that Sargon actually did that and |||||||||||||e até o Mar Mediterrâneo, a maioria dos estudiosos acredita que Sargão realmente fez isso e

more. mais mais.

One could go on about the conquests and exploits of Sargon, his two sons, and his powerful alguém|poderia|ir|em|sobre|as|conquistas|e|feitos|de|Sargão|seus|dois|filhos|e|seu|poderoso Pode-se falar sobre as conquistas e feitos de Sargão, seus dois filhos e seu poderoso

grandson Naram-Sin, but these are stories for another time. |||||||para|| neto Naram-Sin, mas essas são histórias para outro momento.

What's more important for our purpose here is the effects of the Akkadian conquest on O que é mais importante para o nosso propósito aqui são os efeitos da conquista acádia sobre

Sumer and its inhabitants. Suméria|e|seus|habitantes Suméria e seus habitantes.

The people that we know as the Akkadians came from the land just north of Sumer known as os|povos|que|nós|conhecemos|como|os|acadianos|vieram|de|a|terra|apenas|ao norte de||Suméria|conhecida|como O povo que conhecemos como os acadianos veio da terra logo ao norte da Suméria conhecida como

of them is quite limited. sobre|eles|é|bastante|limitado sobre eles é bastante limitado.

Unlike Sumerian, which is a language isolate, Akkadian is similar to other well understood ao contrário de|sumério|que|é|uma|língua|isolada|acádio|é|semelhante|a|outras|bem|compreendidas Ao contrário do sumério, que é uma língua isolada, o acádio é semelhante a outras línguas semíticas bem compreendidas.

were now in Akkadian. estavam|agora|em|acádio estavam agora em acádio.

Sargon seems to have taken a great deal of pride in the fact that he was not of noble Sargão|parece|a|ter|tomado|um|grande|tanto|de|orgulho|em|o|fato|que|ele|era|não|de|nobre Sargão parece ter se orgulhado muito do fato de que ele não era de nobre

This really crushed the power of the priesthood because up until then, such property had been isso|realmente|esmagou|o|poder|da||sacerdócio|porque|até|que|então|tal|propriedade|tinha|sido Isso realmente esmagou o poder do sacerdócio porque até então, tal propriedade tinha sido

their main source of revenue. deles|principal|fonte|de|receita sua principal fonte de receita.

of Ur. de|Ur de Ur.

With its millennia-old cities, temple establishments, and other institutions, Sumer had been the com|suas|||cidades|templos|estabelecimentos|e|outras|instituições|Suméria|tinha|sido|o Com suas cidades milenares, estabelecimentos de templos e outras instituições, a Suméria tinha sido o

also on the rise. também|em|a|ascensão também em ascensão.

Euphrates River, better known as Agade. ||melhor|conhecido|como|Agade rio Eufrates, mais conhecido como Agade.

hub as well. |também|bem centro econômico.

came to Agade. veio|para|Acádia veio para Agade.

Such actions were all at the expense of Sumerian cities such as Uruk, Lagash, and Ur, which tais|ações|foram|todas|a|a|custa|de|sumérias|cidades|como|Uruk||Lagash|e|Ur| Essas ações foram todas às custas de cidades sumérias como Uruk, Lagash e Ur, que

Mesopotamia. Mesopotâmia Mesopotâmia.

BC. a.C.

empire into new territories, by the end of the reign of his successor, Shar-Khali-Shari império|em|novos|territórios|até|o|fim|de|o|reinado|de|seu|sucessor||| império em novos territórios, até o final do reinado de seu sucessor, Shar-Khali-Shari

in 2193 BC, the Akkadian state may have held little territory outside of Agade. em|aC|o|acádio|estado|pode|ter|mantido|pouco|território|fora de||Agade em 2193 a.C., o estado acádio pode ter mantido pouco território fora de Agade.

Shar-Khali-Shari, son of Naramsin, ruled for 25 years. |||filho|de|Naramsin|governou|por|anos Shar-Khali-Shari, filho de Naramsin, governou por 25 anos.

Then who was king? então|quem|foi|rei Então quem era o rei?

Who was not king? quem|foi|não|rei Quem não era rei?

Irgigi was king. Irgigi|foi|rei Irgigi era o rei.

Nanum was king. Nanum|foi|rei Nanum era rei.

Imi was king. Imi|foi|rei Imi era rei.

Ilulu was king. Ilulu|foi|rei Ilulu era rei.

Dudu reigned for 21 years. Dudu|reinou|por|anos Dudu reinou por 21 anos.

Shudur-al, the son of Dudu, reigned for 15 years. ||o|filho|de|Dudu|reinou|por|anos Shudur-al, o filho de Dudu, reinou por 15 anos.

later when a people from the Zagros mountains, known as the Gutians, swept in, overthrew depois|quando|um|povo|das|os||||||gutianos|varreu|para dentro|derrubou depois, quando um povo das montanhas Zagros, conhecido como os Gutianos, invadiu, derrubou

Shudur-al and destroyed Agade. ||e|destruiu|Agade Shudur-al e destruiu Agade.

economy. economia economia.

its many territories. seus muitos territórios.

the Akkadian empire seceded. os||| o império acádio se separaram.

In such circumstances, people like the Gutians probably saw an opportunity to raid, plunder, Em tais circunstâncias, pessoas como os gutianos provavelmente viram uma oportunidade para saquear, pilhar,

and perhaps seize some territory for themselves. e talvez conquistar algum território para si.

What was going on in this new post-Akkadian world is not very clear, but the Sumerian o que|estava|acontecendo|em|neste|este|novo|||mundo|é|não|muito|claro|mas|a|suméria O que estava acontecendo neste novo mundo pós-acadiano não é muito claro, mas a lista de reis sumérios

In Uruk, Ur-Nigin became king. em|Uruk|||tornou-se|rei Em Uruk, Ur-Nigin se tornou rei.

He ruled for seven years. ele|governou|por|sete|anos Ele governou por sete anos.

Ur-Jijir, son of Ur-Nigin, ruled for six years. ||filho|de|||governou|por|seis|anos Ur-Jijir, filho de Ur-Nigin, governou por seis anos.

Kuda ruled for six years. Kuda|governou|por|seis|anos Kuda governou por seis anos.

Puzor-Ili ruled for five years. ||governou|por|cinco|anos Puzor-Ili governou por cinco anos.

Ur-Utu ruled for six years. ||governou|por|seis|anos Ur-Utu governou por seis anos.

After this, we have the dynasty of Gutium and Gutian rule of the region. depois de|isso|nós|temos|a|dinastia|de|Gutium|e|gutiano|domínio|de|a|região Depois disso, temos a dinastia de Gutium e o domínio gutiano da região.

Uruk was defeated, and the kingship was taken to the army of Gutium. Uruk|foi|derrotada|e|a|realeza|foi|levada|para|o|exército|de|Gutium Uruk foi derrotada, e a realeza foi levada para o exército de Gutium.

Nibiya became king. Nibiya|tornou-se|rei Nibiya se tornou rei.

He ruled for three years. ele|governou|por|três|anos Ele governou por três anos.

Ikukumlakaba ruled for six years. Ikukumlakaba|governou|por|seis|anos Ikukumlakaba governou por seis anos.

Shulme ruled for six years. Shulme|governou|por|seis|anos Shulme governou por seis anos.

Silulumesh ruled for six years. Silulumesh|governou|por|seis|anos Silulumesh governou por seis anos.

21 kings who ruled for 91 years and 40 days. reis|que|reinaram|por|anos|e|dias 21 reis que governaram por 91 anos e 40 dias.

of one who doesn't actually appear on the Sumerian king list. de|um|que|não|realmente|aparece|na||suméria|rei|lista de um que na verdade não aparece na lista de reis sumérios.

His name was Eridu Wizir, and a few statues found in Nippur indicate that he was king seu|nome|era|Eridu|Wizir|e|uma|poucas|estátuas|encontradas|em|Nippur|indicam|que|ele|era|rei Seu nome era Eridu Wizir, e algumas estátuas encontradas em Nippur indicam que ele era rei.

of Gutium and of the Four Quarters. de|Gutium|e|de|os|Quatro|Quartos de Gutium e dos Quatro Quartos.

troops or kept a garrison in some cities in order to ensure the collection of tribute. tropas|ou|mantivessem|uma|guarnição|em|algumas|cidades|em|para|a|garantir|a|coleta|de|tributo tropas ou mantivessem uma guarnição em algumas cidades para garantir a coleta de tributo.

In some places, the Gutians may have even appointed the Nc from amongst the locals to em|alguns|lugares|os|gutianos|podem|ter|até|nomeado|os|Nc|de|entre|os|locais|para Em alguns lugares, os Gutianos podem até ter nomeado os Nc entre os locais para

collect tribute and govern on their behalf. coletar|tributo|e|governar|em|seu|nome coletar tributo e governar em seu nome.

claims that the Gutians ruled. afirma|que|os|gutianos|governaram afirma que os Gutianos governaram.

One of them was Lagash under its king, Gudia. um|de|eles|foi|Lagash|sob|seu|rei|Gudia Um deles era Lagash sob seu rei, Gudia.

Believed to have ruled between the years 2141 to 2122 BC, Gudia was a very pious ruler who acreditou-se|a|ter|governado|entre|os|anos|a|aC|Gudia|foi|um|muito|piedoso|governante|que Acredita-se que tenha governado entre os anos 2141 a 2122 a.C., Gudia era um governante muito piedoso que

deity Ningirsu. divindade|Ningirsu Ningirsu.

like a shepherd protecting his flock, which in this case were the people that he ruled como|um|pastor|protegendo|seu|rebanho|que|em|este|caso|eram|as|pessoas|que|ele|governava como um pastor protegendo seu rebanho, que neste caso eram as pessoas que ele governava

over. sobre .

his life to the deity. sua|vida|a|a|divindade sua vida à divindade.

This was a big change from the boasting of cities conquered and enemies slain that was isso|foi|uma|grande|mudança|de|o|orgulho|de|cidades|conquistadas|e|inimigos|mortos|que|era Essa foi uma grande mudança em relação à ostentação das cidades conquistadas e inimigos mortos que era

often the hallmark of the royal inscriptions of the kings who had preceded him. frequentemente|a|marca|de|as|reais|inscrições|de|os|reis|que|tinham|precedido|ele frequentemente a marca registrada das inscrições reais dos reis que o precederam.

At the end of the day, the Gutians were outsiders and most Sumerians, if later texts are to no|final|de|do|dia||os|gutianos|eram|estrangeiros|e|a maioria|sumérios|se|posteriores|textos|forem|a No final do dia, os Gutianos eram estrangeiros e a maioria dos sumérios, se textos posteriores devem

be believed, considered themselves to be superior to them. ||||para|||| ser acreditados, consideravam-se superiores a eles.

a force to end the Gutian presence in Sumer. uma força para acabar com a presença gutiana na Suméria.

Enlil, the king of all the lands, commissioned Utuhegal, the mighty man, the king of Uruk, Enlil|o|rei|de|todas|as|terras|comissionou|Utuhegal|o|poderoso|homem|o|rei|de|Uruk Enlil, o rei de todas as terras, comissionou Utuhegal, o homem poderoso, o rei de Uruk,

the king of the four quarters, to destroy the name of Gutium, the snake and the scorpion o|rei|de|os|quatro|cantos|a|destruir|o|nome|de|Gutium|a|cobra|e|o|escorpião o rei dos quatro cantos, para destruir o nome de Gutium, a cobra e o escorpião

for their support and blessings. por|seu|apoio|e|bênçãos por seu apoio e bênçãos.

The text continues. o|texto|continua O texto continua.

In that very night he went to Utu and made supplication to him. naquela|aquela|muito|noite|ele|foi|a|Utu|e|fez|súplica|a|ele Naquela mesma noite, ele foi a Utu e fez súplica a ele.

knew that Utuhegal was the king to whom Enlil had granted might, they did not set Tirigan sabiam que Utuhegal era o rei a quem Enlil havia concedido poder, não libertaram Tirigan.

free.

of wood upon his hands and blindfolded him. ||sobre|seu|||| de madeira em suas mãos e o vendou.

his foot upon his neck. seus|pé|sobre|seu|pescoço seu pé sobre seu pescoço.

dynasty. dinastia dinastia.

He was succeeded by his son-in-law, the former governor of Ur, a man who went by the name ele|foi|sucedido|por|seu||||o|ex|governador|de|Ur|um|homem|que|ia|por|o|nome Ele foi sucedido por seu genro, o ex-governador de Ur, um homem que se chamava

Ur-Namu, who himself founded his own dynasty in 2112 BC. ||que|ele mesmo|fundou|sua|própria|dinastia|em|aC Ur-Namu, que por sua vez fundou sua própria dinastia em 2112 a.C.

The start of Ur-Namu's reign also ushers in what we refer to as the Neo-Sumerian period. o|início|de|||reinado|também|traz|em|o que|nós|nos referimos|a|como|o|||período O início do reinado de Ur-Namu também marca o que chamamos de período Neo-Sumeriano.

Not much is known about Ur-Namu's early years, though it's believed that he may have supported não|muito|é|conhecido|sobre|||primeiros|anos|embora|é|acreditado|que|ele|pode|ter|apoiado Não se sabe muito sobre os primeiros anos de Ur-Namu, embora se acredite que ele possa ter apoiado

After securing his position as king, Ur-Namu annexed the cities of Lagash and Eredu. depois de|garantir|sua|posição|como|rei|||anexou|as|cidades|de|Lagash|e|Eredu Após garantir sua posição como rei, Ur-Namu anexou as cidades de Lagash e Eredu.

as a shepherd or father figure rather than as a conqueror. como|uma|pastor|ou|pai|figura|em vez|de|como|um|conquistador como um pastor ou figura paterna do que como um conquistador.

And like another past king of Lagash, Uruk-Agina, Ur-Namu also had a code of laws. e|como|outro|passado|rei|de|Lagash|||||também|teve|um|código|de|leis E assim como outro rei do passado de Lagash, Uruk-Agina, Ur-Namu também tinha um código de leis.

and not that of Uruk-Agina, whose actual code has not yet been discovered, but only referenced e|não|que|de|||cujo|atual|código|tem|não|ainda|sido|descoberto|mas|apenas|referenciado e não o de Uruk-Agina, cujo código real ainda não foi descoberto, mas apenas referenciado

to in other documents. a|em|outros|documentos em outros documentos.

Though the copy that we have is badly damaged, the original code is believed to have been embora|a|cópia|que|nós|temos|está|gravemente|danificada|o|original|código|é|acreditado|a|ter|sido Embora a cópia que temos esteja muito danificada, acredita-se que o código original tenha sido

punishments. punições punições.

Here's a sample. aqui está|um|exemplo Aqui está um exemplo.

If a man committed a kidnapping, he is to be imprisoned and pay fifteen shekels of silver. se|um|homem|cometeu|um|sequestro|ele|é|a|ser|preso|e|pagar|quinze|shekels|de|prata Se um homem cometer um sequestro, ele deve ser preso e pagar quinze shekels de prata.

man must pay five shekels of silver. homem deve pagar cinco shekels de prata.

If a man appeared as a witness and was shown to be a perjurer, he must pay fifteen shekels se|um|homem|apareceu|como|uma|testemunha|e|foi|mostrado|a|ser|um|perjuro|ele|deve|pagar|quinze|shekels Se um homem apareceu como testemunha e foi provado ser um perjuro, ele deve pagar quinze shekels

of silver. de prata.

If a man, in the course of a scuffle, smashed the limb of another man with a club, he shall se|um|homem|em|a|curso|de|uma|briga|quebrou|a|perna|de|outro|homem|com|um|porrete|ele|deverá Se um homem, no decorrer de uma briga, quebrar o membro de outro homem com um bastão, ele deverá

pay one mina of silver. pagar|uma|mina|de|prata pagar uma mina de prata.

Ur-Namu is also credited by many historians for starting what's known as the Sumerian ||é|também|creditado|por|muitos|historiadores|por|iniciar|o que é|conhecido|como|a|suméria Ur-Namu também é creditado por muitos historiadores por iniciar o que é conhecido como a Sumeriana

Renaissance. Renascimento Renascença.

the Akkadian language, Ur-Namu and his descendants instituted policies and programs where Sumerian a|acádica|língua|||e|seus|descendentes|instituíram|políticas|e|programas|onde|suméria a língua acádia, Ur-Namu e seus descendentes instituíram políticas e programas onde a língua suméria

Sumerian was made the official language of the government and heavily promoted in the sumério|foi|tornado|a|oficial|língua|de|o|governo|e|fortemente|promovida|em|a O sumério foi tornado a língua oficial do governo e amplamente promovido na

creation of new art and literature. |de|novas||| criação de novas artes e literatura.

of Akkadian rule and the instability that followed. de||||||| de domínio acádio e a instabilidade que se seguiu.

There were also many new construction projects as well as restorations of iconic old buildings. |||||||||||de||| Havia também muitos novos projetos de construção, bem como restaurações de edifícios antigos icônicos.

For example, it was during Ur-Namu's reign that the great ziggurat of Ur was expanded Por exemplo, foi durante o reinado de Ur-Namu que o grande zigurate de Ur foi expandido.

Though Ur-Namu set the Neo-Sumerian era in motion, it was during the 47-year reign of embora|Ur|||o||||||||||||de Embora Ur-Namu tenha dado início à era neo-sumeriana, foi durante o reinado de 47 anos de

his son and successor, Shulgi, that the Ur III empire reached the height of its prosperity, seu filho e sucessor, Shulgi, que o império Ur III alcançou o auge de sua prosperidade,

size, and artistic achievements. tamanho|e|artísticas|conquistas tamanho e conquistas artísticas.

Written in the first person, it goes like this. escrito|em|primeira|pessoa||isso|vai|como|isso Escrito em primeira pessoa, é assim que vai.

I am the king. eu|sou|o|rei Eu sou o rei.

I am Shulgi. eu|sou|Shulgi Eu sou Shulgi.

From the time I was born I have been a mighty man. desde|o|tempo|eu|fui|nasci|eu|tenho|sido|um|poderoso|homem Desde o momento em que nasci, eu sou um homem poderoso.

I am the lion with a ferocious look, born by the dragon. eu|sou|o|leão|com|um|feroz|olhar|nascido|de|o|dragão Eu sou o leão com um olhar feroz, nascido pelo dragão.

I am king of the four corners. eu|sou|rei|de|os|quatro|cantos Eu sou o rei dos quatro cantos.

I am the keeper, the shepherd of the black-headed ones. eu|sou|o|guardião|o|pastor|de|os|||aqueles Eu sou o guardião, o pastor dos de cabeça preta.

I am the noble one, the god of all the lands. eu|sou|o|nobre|um|o|deus|de|todas|as|terras Eu sou o nobre, o deus de todas as terras.

flock, as he'd call them, to have faith in him as their protector, much like sheep seguidores de Shulgi, como ele os chamava, a ter fé nele como seu protetor, assim como as ovelhas

are watched over and protected from wolves by a good shepherd. são|vigiadas|por|e|protegidas|de|lobos|por|um|bom|pastor são vigiadas e protegidas de lobos por um bom pastor.

was that the Ur III state's prosperity was due not to its god-king's divine intervention era|que|o|Ur|III|do estado|prosperidade|era|devida|não|a|seu|||divina|intervenção era que a prosperidade do estado Ur III não se devia à intervenção divina de seu deus-rei

or powers, but rather the highly efficient, centralized government that ran the empire. ou poderes, mas sim ao governo centralizado e altamente eficiente que administrava o império.

One thing that the kings of the Third Dynasty of Ur did adopt from the Akkadian regime was uma|coisa|que|os|reis|da||Terceira|Dinastia|de|Ur|fizeram|adotar|do||acádio|regime|foi Uma coisa que os reis da Terceira Dinastia de Ur adotaram do regime acádio foi

kingdom into a full-fledged empire with a vast network of territories and tributary para um império completo com uma vasta rede de territórios e estados tributários.

states. estados

where such a large quantity and variety of documentation has been discovered. onde|tal|uma|grande|quantidade|e|variedade|de|documentação|tem|sido|descoberta onde uma quantidade tão grande e variada de documentação foi descoberta.

and the like. e|as|semelhantes e afins.

information with regard to private citizens and businesses, we still get a window into informação em relação a cidadãos e empresas privadas, ainda assim temos uma visão de

Taxes were not paid in silver or gold, but in goods such as grain, livestock, textiles, impostos|foram|não|pagos|em|prata|ou|ouro|mas|em|bens|como||grãos|gado|têxteis Os impostos não eram pagos em prata ou ouro, mas em bens como grãos, gado, têxteis,

or even pottery. ou|até mesmo|cerâmica ou até mesmo cerâmica.

paid throughout the empire on the same day, or even in the same month. pagos|em todo|o|império|em|o|mesmo|dia|ou|mesmo|em|o|mesmo|mês pagos em todo o império no mesmo dia, ou mesmo no mesmo mês.

That would have been too difficult for even the large bureaucracy of the Ur III state isso|verbo auxiliar condicional|ter|sido|muito|difícil|para|até|a|grande|burocracia|de|o|Ur|III|estado Isso teria sido muito difícil até mesmo para a grande burocracia do estado Ur III

to manage. para|gerenciar gerenciar.

during a particular month. durante|um|particular|mês durante um mês específico.

Along with being easier to manage, the bala system helped to ensure that the government junto|com|ser|mais fácil|a|gerenciar|o|bala|sistema|ajudou|a|garantir|que|o|governo Além de ser mais fácil de gerenciar, o sistema de bala ajudou a garantir que o governo

Though things during Ur-Namu and Shulgi's reigns seemed to have been peaceful at home, embora|as coisas|durante|||e|de Shulgi|reinados|pareciam|a|ter|sido|pacíficas|em|casa Embora as coisas durante os reinados de Ur-Namu e Shulgi parecessem ter sido pacíficas em casa,

war and conquest were still very much a part of the Ur III empire. guerra|e|conquista|eram|ainda|muito|muito|uma|parte|de|o|Ur|III|império a guerra e a conquista ainda faziam parte do império Ur III.

Ur-Namu is said to have been killed in battle against resurgent groups of Gutians, while ||é|dito|a|ter|sido|morto|em|batalha|contra|ressurgentes|grupos|de|gutianos|enquanto Ur-Namu é dito ter sido morto em batalha contra grupos ressurgentes de Gutianos, enquanto

However, upon his death in 2047 BC, the empire that he in large part helped to build began no entanto|após|sua|morte|em|aC|o|império|que|ele|em|grande|parte|ajudou|a|construir|começou No entanto, após sua morte em 2047 a.C., o império que ele ajudou em grande parte a construir começou

Amarsin, but by the reign of the next king, Shusin, rebellions in the provinces were becoming Amarsin|mas|pelo|o|reinado|de|o|próximo|rei|Shusin|rebeliões|em|as|províncias|estavam|se tornando Amarsin, mas durante o reinado do próximo rei, Shusin, as rebeliões nas províncias estavam se tornando

In Sumerian, they're called the Martu, and their presence in Mesopotamia was not a welcome em|sumério|eles são|chamados|os|martus|e|sua|presença|em|Mesopotâmia|foi|não|uma|bem-vinda Em sumério, eles são chamados de Martu, e sua presença na Mesopotâmia não era bem-vinda.

one. uma uma.

One Neo-Sumerian text disparagingly describes them in the following way. um|||texto|de forma depreciativa|descreve|eles|em|a|seguinte|maneira Um texto neo-sumeriano os descreve de forma depreciativa da seguinte maneira.

The boars of the mountains. os|javalis|das|montanhas| Os javalis das montanhas.

Who does not bend his knees to cultivate the land. quem|não||dobra|seus|joelhos|para|cultivar|a|terra Quem não se ajoelha para cultivar a terra.

Who eats raw meat. quem|come|crua|carne Quem come carne crua.

Who is not buried after his death. quem|é|não|enterrado|após|sua|morte Quem não é enterrado após sua morte.

Like the Akkadians, the Amorites were also a Semitic-speaking people, but from further como|os|acadianos|os|amoritas|eram|também|um|||povo|mas|de|mais Assim como os acadianos, os amoritas também eram um povo de língua semítica, mas de uma região mais

west, specifically the Levant. oeste|especificamente|o|Levante a oeste, especificamente o Levante.

It didn't work, and by the reign of the third dynasty of Ur's last king, Ibi-Sin, the Amorites isso|não|funcionou|e|pelo|o|reinado|de|o|terceira|dinastia|de|Ur|último|rei|||os|amoritas Não funcionou, e durante o reinado do último rei da terceira dinastia de Ur, Ibi-Sin, os amoritas

managed to take over several towns and cities, creating their own little fiefdoms in the |a||||||||||||em|o conseguiram tomar várias cidades e vilarejos, criando seus próprios pequenos feudos no

process. processo.

As things went from bad to worse in the Sumerian heartland, the areas on the periphery of the ||||||||a|suméria|coração|as|áreas|na|a|periferia|de| À medida que as coisas iam de mal a pior na terra natal suméria, as áreas na periferia do

empire all broke away. império|todo|quebrou|para longe o império todo se separou.

his behalf, declared his independence and then marched westward with an army to take seu nome, declarou sua independência e então marchou para o oeste com um exército para tomar

the city of Susa. a|cidade|de|Susã a cidade de Susa.

By 2004 BC, Ibi-Sin ruled an empire in name only. até|aC|||governou|um|império|em|nome|apenas Por volta de 2004 a.C., Ibi-Sin governava um império apenas de nome.

Leading an army from Susa, he advanced on Ur, sacked the city, and took Ibi-Sin back liderando|um|exército|de|Susa|ele|avançou|para|Ur|saqueou|a|cidade|e|levou|||de volta Liderando um exército de Susa, ele avançou sobre Ur, saqueou a cidade e levou Ibi-Sin de volta

to Ilam as a prisoner. para|Ilam|como|um|prisioneiro para Ilam como prisioneiro.

In the end, we don't know what happened to Ibi-Sin, but it's likely that he was executed. No|o|fim|nós|não|sabemos|o que|aconteceu|a|||mas|é|provável|que|ele|foi|executado No final, não sabemos o que aconteceu com Ibi-Sin, mas é provável que ele tenha sido executado.

With his capture in 2004 BC, the once glorious Neo-Sumerian Empire, ruled by the Third Dynasty com|sua|captura|em|aC|o|uma vez|glorioso|||império|governado|pela|a|Terceira|Dinastia Com sua captura em 2004 a.C., o outrora glorioso Império Neo-Sumeriano, governado pela Terceira Dinastia

of Ur, officially came to an end. de|||||| de Ur, chegou oficialmente ao fim.

The end of the last true Sumerian state also resulted in the phasing out of many, though O|fim|de|o|último|verdadeiro|sumério|estado|também|resultou|em|a|eliminação|de|de|muitos|embora O fim do último verdadeiro estado sumério também resultou na eliminação de muitos, embora

to decline rapidly. a|declinar|rapidamente a declinar rapidamente.

This was in great part due to the influx of new, non-Sumerian peoples into Mesopotamia, isso|foi|em|grande|parte|devido|a|o|influxo|de|novos|||povos|para|Mesopotâmia Isso se deveu em grande parte ao influxo de novos povos, não sumérios, na Mesopotâmia,

Sumerian and Akkadian worlds with those of the newcomers to the region, such as the Amorites. |e|||||de||||||||| mundos sumério e acádio com os dos recém-chegados à região, como os amoritas.

Amorite clans. amorita|clãs Clãs amoritas.

century BC. século|aC século a.C.

culture pervaded both societies throughout their existence.

who were the first to develop more sophisticated farming techniques, tools like the plow, large-scale que|foram|os|primeiros|a|desenvolver|mais|sofisticadas|agrícolas|técnicas|ferramentas|como|a|arado|| que foram os primeiros a desenvolver técnicas agrícolas mais sofisticadas, ferramentas como o arado, planejamento urbano em larga escala,

urban planning, the mass production of everyday items such as pottery and textiles, mathematics urbana|planejamento|a|em massa|produção|de|cotidiano|itens|como||cerâmica|e|têxteis|matemática a produção em massa de itens do dia a dia, como cerâmica e têxteis, matemática

Check out the benefits to being a Patreon member, and if you'd like to join, feel Confira|as|os|benefícios|de|ser|um|Patreon|membro|e|se|você|quiser|a|juntar|sinta Confira os benefícios de ser um membro do Patreon e, se você quiser se juntar, sinta-se

free to click the link in the video description. livre|a|clicar|o|link|na|a|vídeo|descrição à vontade para clicar no link na descrição do vídeo.

special audio programs on the History with Sy podcast. especiais|de áudio|programas|em|o|História|com|Sy|podcast programas de áudio especiais no podcast História com Sy.

Thanks again, and stay safe. obrigado|novamente|e|fique|seguro Obrigado novamente, e fique seguro.

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